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J * . \\ \vs r ETHICS ETH-HB * 00100000143350 * 5 A KEY to Civil Architecture O R T H E Universal Britijh Builder. CONTAINING The Principles and Properties of BUILDING clearly demonstrated, with Illustrations and Definitions both Theoretical and Practical; with a Dissertation on the Sciences appertaining thereto, as well as the Kindred Requisites of Strength, Convenience, Propriety, and Beauty. also, ’ I A strict Enquiry into the present Manner of Building and Mode of Finishing, and how far the Taste is consistent with Symmetry and found Reason: WITH A New Criterion, or Universal Estimator ; In which are considered the Quantity and Quality of Materials adequate for the Execution of any Building ; their exact: Value wheresoever appropriated ; the real and universal Price alligned, proved by the Labour which is required to every Jobb ; with practical Remarks on all the different Branches of a Building, especially on Joiners Works ; where the. most irksome and difficult Parts are considered and reduced to familiar Practice, by the most judicious and approved Methods. The Principles, Properties, and Consequence of all Sorts of Stairs defined, both with respect to Plans and Execution, as well as the Manner of gluing up all Sorts of Hand-rails. The Manner and Method of measuring all the different Artificers Works, as practised by the most eminent Surveyors, with their Prices to each Work.-Also, the Masters Prices, and a Schedule of Prices for Talk-Masters. TO WHICH IS ADDED, A Treatise of Arithmetic, Extraction of the Roots, Duodecimals, Mensuration of Superficies and Solids, round and square Timber, &.c. with Explanations and Reasons for the Rules. By THOMAS S K A I F E, P. A. CARPENTER and JOINER. LONDON: Printed for the Author, by I. Moore and Co. Letter-Founders and Printers, in Qimn-Streel, near Upber-Mcorfidds. M DCC LX XIV. TO THE R E A D E R. r HE following suets , now offered to the Public , were the produce of my leisure hours . How far I have succeeded in the different matters I have treated upon , I leave to the candor and judgment of a critical and discerning world , desiring no approbation , but what results f rom the merit of the work ; humbly hoping , that no one will be too anxious to censure any point , before he hath well weighed the consequences of it. If any person should traduce me for discovering the secrets of the building branch , - relative to the prices of work , / muff inform him , that I considered that as the jiff. rudiment of my plan, in order A 2 to iv To the READER. to give every journeyman (which I think he has a right to) a view of the principles and profts of his business . I humbly dedicate my endeavours to all in the building branches ; and have the honour to be their Mof humble , and mofl obedient Servant, Thomas Skaife. A KEY A KEY T O CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. Introduction to Mechanics. A L L the liberal arts, and various studies, which the bustling world are daily in pursuit of, may be generally comprised under the following heads, viz. Natural, Divine, and Artificial. To the first of these is reducible, not only the government of this great Universe, but the knowledge of the usual causes of Providence in the frame of every created thing. To the second may be referred, the Practice of all those virtues, which may advantage our minds in the search or enquiry after their promised happiness. To the last do belong all those inventions, whereby Nature is any way quickened or advanced in her defects: these artificial experiments being (as it were) but so many essays, by which men do naturally attempt to relieve themselves from the first general curse inflicted upon their labours. Though different 6 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, different the operations, ’tis still one cause; whether a man is emulous for honor, wealth, or same: ■—Though I must confess, none of these motives induced me to the following undertaking, yet my readers will hardly be persuaded, that I had no other view in the attempt, than an earnest desire to propagate the fruits of my industry for the universal benefit of mankind. However, if I may be allowed to alledge my reasons, I must affirm they are centered solely in the last observation ; as, I hope, my endeavours and examples in the following works will plainly evince. I am far from the opinion of the ancient philosophers, who esteemed it a great part of their wisdom to conceal their learning from vulgar apprehension and use, thereby the better to maintain it in its due honor and respect : and therefore did they generally veil all their arts and sciences under such mystical expressions, as might excite the people’s wonder and reverence ; fearing lest a more easy and familiar discovery might expose them to contempt. Hence was it, that the ancient mathematicians did place all their learning in abstracted speculation ; refusing to debase the principles of that noble science into mechanical experiments : insomuch, that those very authors amongst them, who were most eminent for their inventions of this kind, and were willing, by their own practice, to manifest unto the world those artificial wonders, that might be wrought by these arts, as Archimedes, Dedalus, &c. were, notwithstanding, so much infected with this blind superstition, as not to leave any thing in writing concerning the grounds and manner of such operations; by which means posterity unhappily lost, not only the benefits of those peculiar discoveries, but, for many centuries, the proficiency of those arts in general : The Universal British Builder. 7 neral: for when once the learned men did forbid the reducing them to particular use, and vulgar experiments, others did therefore refuse those studies, as being but useless and empty speculations: whence it came to pass, that the science of geometry was so universally neglected, receiving but little or no addition for many hundred years together. The divine Plato is reported to have been a stickler for this foolish opinion ; advising all his followers from prostituting mathematical principles unto common apprehension or practice ; and, in this superstition to philosophy, rather chose to deprive the world of all his useful and excellent inventions, than to expose that profestion to the ignorant vulgar : but his pupil Aristotle (as in many other particulars, so likewise in this) did very justly oppose him ; and became one of the first authors that hath written any practical discourse on these arts. Since him, many other authors of eminence have left masterly works, chusing rather a general benefit, than the hazard that might accrue from the vain, and groundless disrespect of these formal bigots ; rightly preferring the reality and substance of public good, before the shadows of some retired speculation, and ingrate vulgar opinion. LECTURE I. Of Mechanics. T HE word Mechanics is thought by some to be derived from the Greeks, intimating the efficacy and force of such inventions, as elucidate geometrical rules for demonstrating motion, and the effects of powers., or forces, in removing the matter of bodies; or else because these arts are so full of pleasing 8 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, pleasing variety, that they admit not of sloth or weariness. Indeed, according to the ordinary signification of the word, it is used in opposition to the liberal arts; whereas, in propriety of speech, those arts and employments may alone be called illiberal, which require some bodily labour, divested of causes and speculation ; as sawyers, stioe-makers, taylors, Ac. And on the contrary, that discipline, which teaches and discovers the general effects and properties of things, may truly be esteemed as a species of philosophy. But here it should be observed, that this art is usually distinguished into a twofold kind, viz. rational and manual. The first is that, which treats of those principles and fundamental notions which may concern these mechanical practices. The latter doth refer to the making of all these instruments, and the exercising of such particular experiments in architecture, Ac. and, familiarly speaking, may be termed as theory and practice ; both which I mean to treat of in the following sheets. The first of these may properly be called liberal, as deserving the thoughts of men of erudition ; because springing from the honourable parentage of geometry and natural philosophy. Not even the pursuit of Rhetoric and Logic do more adorn the mind, than a thorough knowledge of Architecture, and Mechanic powers and practices enlighten the understanding ; and, therefore, are they well worthy to be entertained with much greater respect, than they commonly meet with in these luxurious times. The mechanical faculties, by which all experiments are tried in removing the matter of bodies, are generally reckoned to be six—the Balance, the Lever, the Wheel, the Pulley, the Wedge, and the Screw; The Universal British Builder. 9 Screw ; unto some of which every divisible, impenetrable, and passive subllance, that hath extention and resistance, which are the properties of all kinds of bodies, must be affected on their universal principle of gravity ; gravity being that force, by which bodies are carried or tend towards the center of the earth, and which may be said to be in proportion to the quantity of matter they contain. But, for the better distinction, and more clear discovery of these mechanical faculties, as they are of the greatest utility to all students of Architecture, I shall Ipeak of them severally. LECTURE II. Of the Balance. T HE first invention of the Balance is commonly attributed to AJtrea, who was therefore deified by the title of The Goddess of Justice. The particulars of the Balance are so commonly known, and of such easy and familiar experiments, that they will not need any large explanation. The chief end of it is for the distinction of several ponderosities ; for the understanding of which, we have only to note, viz. that, if the sides of the Balance, and the weights at the end of them, be mutually equal, then the beam will be in an horizontal or level situation; but, on the contrary, if either the weights alone be equal, and not their distances, or the distances alone, and not the weights, then the beam will accordingly decline. From these grounds, rightly apprehended, it is easy to conceive how a man may find out the just proportion of a weight, which, m any point given, mall equiponderate to several weights given, hanging in several places of the beam. B Within 10 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Within the power and circumscription of the Balance, many ingenious enquiries may be made ; such as measuring the weight and force of blows, the strength of Brings, or other oblong substances, the distinct proportion of several metals mixed together, and the different gravities of divers bodies in the water, from what they have in the open air. But, as these things are foreign to the present design, I shall conclude, without farther essay on the Balance, with this observation, that whatever geometrical definitions may be in any wife serviceable, relative to the Balance, I shall speak of them in the different parts of practice, as they occur; especially of geometry stairs. LECTURE III. Of the Lever. T H E second mechanical faculty is the Lever, the first invention of which is generally given to Neptune, the God of the Sea, and represented by his trident. The properties and principles of this powerful and uleful instrument bear almost the fame proportions with the Balance, only with this difference— mark the following EXAMPLE. As the weight is to an equivalent power, so is the distance betwixt the weight and the center unto the distance and the ppwer ; and so reciprocally. Or thus—The power that doth equiponderate with any weight, must have the fame proportion unto it, as there is betwixt their several distances from the center or fulciment. The The Universal British Builder. n The meaning of the aforesaid doth import thus much ; that the power at the end of the Lever mull bear the same proportion to the weight to be ful- tained, as the distance from the sulciment to the power you bear doth from the sulciment to the weight:—for instance, if your Lever is nine feet long, and the sulciment at one foot, the proportion will be as eight to one ; for, supposing the weight eight hundred, one hundred borne upon the end of the Lever, at eight feet, would equiponderate, and be adequate to the weight. The ground of which maxim is, the sulciment at one foot, in this proportion, being the center of gravity. It must be observed, that all the varieties of motion in inanimate bodies, are subject to the forces impressed ; and therefore it follows, if a body be ablolutely at rest, and unfurnished with any moving principle, it must of course continue so, till acted upon by some external power. When a body is put in motion, it hath no power within itself to make any change in the direction of its course ; therefore must move in proportion to the power impressed. There is not a more useful, nor a more extensive instrument than the Lever, nor any so familiarly reduced to practice. It is reported of the great Archimedes, that, with this simple faculty, he proposed to remove the greatest conceivable weight with the least conceivable power; and moreover, if he did but,know where to stand and take his sulciment, he could remove the world—all this great mass, or globe ol sea and land : which attempts, though they were altogether above the vulgar apprehension or belief, yet his acts had been so very extraordinary, and in compliance with an edict made by the king of Syracuse, (to believe, whatever Archimedes should B 2 affirm) 12 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, affirm) they were obliged to reconcile this extravagant proposition ; though it might be easy to demonstrate the geometrical truths of these strange assertions, where is the use of it’s supposing them proved by the mechanical faculties ? Such grounds, though palpable to the weakest capacity, could exist only in fancy, or idea, being far beyond the executive power of man to effect. Therefore the thought was diabolical, because impracticable :—It is nevertheless certain, if there was the greatest conceivable weight, with the least imaginable power—suppose so small as the weight of one man ; if we conceive the fame disproportions between their several distances, as in the former observation, from the ful- ciment to the center of gravity, they would both equiponderate : and if the distance of the power from the center, in comparison to the distance of the weight, were but any thing more than the heaviness or the weight is in respect to the power, it may then be evident, from the former example, that the power would be greater than the weight, and consequently able to move it. LECTURE IV. Os the Wheel. A MONGST the variety of artificial motions, those are of most use and pleasure, to which, by the application of some continued strengh, there is bestowed a lasting motion. These we may properly call felf-movers, because the motions of such inventions are actuated or caused by something which belongs to their own frame, or at least by iome external inanimate agent; as mills by wind and water ; clocks, watches, or other engines made of wheels, by weights, springs, &c. It The Universal British Builder. 13 It would be too elaborate to illustrate the extension of this mechanic faculty, otherwise than what may be useful to the present design. I shall, therefore pass over what may be effected by its subtlety, in every respect, but its power in removing the matter of bodies. The Wheel, relative to power, is in every respect equal with the Lever; but the force of this faculty may be more conveniently understood by the multiplication of several wheels together, with nuts belonging to each of them. The full effect of this invention cannot be better explained than thus ;—As the nut is to the wheel, (which may be as one to ten) so is the number 01 wheels and nuts to an equivalent power. One of our ordinary jacks for roasting meat (which consist but of three) fully {hews what may be executed by a number of these movers: for, if the fly or balance, in comparison to its axis, be but as the proportion of wheels to the nuts, viz. ten to one, and the whole proportionable to the weight, ’tis evident that, if the weight was three hundred, a small string at the balance or fly would easily draw it up ; for if the weight was three hundred, viz. 3361b. or even tooolb. the fly need not be more than as one to a thousand ; for the first axis is to be but one tenth part of its wheel ; and therefore, though the weight be a thousand pounds, yet unto a power that hath this advantage, it is but as a hundred at the second wheel; and in this proportion still diminishing, at the third wheel it is but ten, and at the fly but one ; so, if a man has a string that will draw one pound, it is palpable he may effect this weight: and so of any other power, let the weight or magnitude be ever so great; it is but adding more wheels and nuts, adequate to the above proportion. Upon 24 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, Upon this principle was the famous engine extolled so by Stevenius, and preferred by him to all Archimedes s: it consisted of wheels and nuts, tho’ possibly more considerable in number, and might bear a greater proportion. Upon this principle an author tells us, that if there we an engine with 12 wheels, each of them with teeth, as also the axes or nuts which belong to them, fays he ; if the diameter of these wheels were unto each axis as a hundred to one ; and if we may suppose the wheels to be so placed, that the teeth of the one might take hold of the axis which belongs unto the other, and that the axis of the handle (made to work it) may turn the first wheel, and the weight be fixed to the axis of the last, he could with ease remove the greatest conceivable weight in the world. It appears to me the most unaccountable thing in nature, how any man, or body of men, can buoy themselves up with impracticable notions : it is true, that explications and geometrical definitions may be rendered of all kinds of local motion, and even so facile and obvious, that an ordinary artificer may sufficiently understand them, and yet not all the men in the world be able to execute them. Tho’ this may seem a paradox to many, I hope to prove it clearly by example ; notwithstanding Aristotle has endeavoured to define, that there is no conceivable weight that may not be removed by these wheels, even as much acted as can be fancied by imagination. It remains now, in order to make a perfect discovery of the truth of what many authors, have asserted, concerning the removing the world, the drawing up by the roots the strongest oaks, and manv more of the like extravagant affirmations, to enquire into the'nature of artificial motion—I mean slowness The Universal British Builder. 15 slowness and swiftness ; for, without a right understanding of these, a man will be exposed to many absurd mistakes, in attempting those things, which are either in themselves impossible, or else not to be performed by such means as are applied to them. I think I may safely affirm, that many, if not most, mistakes in these great mechanical designs, do arise from a misapprehension of that difference, which there will be between the slowness or swiftness of the weight and power, in comparison to the proportion of their several strengths. If it were possible to contrive such an engine, whereby any conceivable weight might be moved by any conceivable power, both with the same brevity or speed (as it is with those things immediately stirred by the hand) the works of Nature would be then too much subjected to the power of Art, and men might be encouraged, with the builders of Babel, to such extravagant designs, as would not become a created being; and, therefore, the wisdom of Providence hath so confined these human arts, that what any invention hath in the strength of its motion, is abated in the slowness of it: for it must be observed as a general rule, that the space of time or place, in which the weight is moved, in comparison to that in which the power doth move, is in the fame proportion as they themselves are to one another ; so that if there be any great difference betwixt the strength of the weight and the power, the very same kind of difference will there be in the space of their motion. If the power be unto the weight but as one to an hundred, then the space, through which the weight moves, will be an hundred times less, and consequently the motion of the weight an hundred times slower than that of the power. If 16 A Key to Civil Architecture r Or, If we consider an instrument of twelve wheels, as before-mentioned, made proportionable in strength for any imaginable weight, we should then find that the motion of it must be considerably flower than the heavens are swift: for, if we suppose the windlass to such an engine (prepared to set the whole in motion) to be turned 4000 times in an hour, yet in ten years space the weight would not be moved one hair’s-breadth, nor an inch in a thousand years: the truth of which we may more easily conceive, if we consider the frame and manner of a twelve- wheeled engine : suppose in each axis or nut there were ten teeth, and on each wheel a thousand; then the windlass of this engine must be turned one hundred times before the first wheel, reckoning downwards, could be moved round once, and ten thousand times before the second could finish one revolution ; and so through the whole twelve wheels this multiplied proportion. I will now appeal to every reader, of common reason, whether such attempts or expressions can be more than the incoherent fumigations of a distempered brain ! Notwithstanding, the beauties of mechanical manœuvres are as instructing as entertaining, when they are reduced to familiar practice, but when once prostituted, or stretched beyond the - power of art, they no longer can be considered as parts of the science, because they only exist in notion. Not much unlike such extravagant thoughts as these, was that of the famous Grecian architect, who did propOund to Alexander the Great, to cut the large mountain Athos in the form of a statue or figure of a man, which in his right hand should hold a town capable of ten thousand men, and in his left a vessel to receive all the water that flowed from the The Universal British Builder. 17 the several springs in the mountain; but whether Alexander, in his ambition, feared that such an idol might have more honour than he himself; or whether, in Iris good husbandry, he thought such a work would cost him more money than the conquering the world ; or whatever else, he refused to undertake it: but if he had consented to such an unreasonable attempt, (though in contradiction to the opinions of all mankind) I dare affirm it never could have been executed. LECTURE V. Of the Pulley. T HE Pulley is of such ordinary use, that it will not need much, nor any particular description. The chief parts of it are divers little rundles, that are moveable about their proper axes : these are usually divided according to their several situations, into the upper and lower. The lower pullies only do give force to the motions. II we suppose a weight to hang upon any of the upper rundles, it will then require a power, that in itself stiall be fully equal for the sustaining it. The diameter of a pulley, when fixed in a state of motion, is as a proper beam or balance hung upon its center : therefore the power must be adequate to the weight, in the same state as if the power and weight were fastened by two several cords, at the end of the balance. Now all the upper pullies being of one and the same nature, it must necessarily follow, that none of them do in themselves conduce to the easing of the power, but only for the greater conveniency of the motion ; the cords by this means being more easily moved than otherwise they would. C ' If 18 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, If the weight to be sustained be above the pulley, as in all the lower fort it is, then the power that supports it need be but half so much as the weight itself. Let the diameter of a lower pulley, on whose center the weight is fastened, one end of the cord being tied to a hook, there will be but half of the weight to sustain ; for the hook in this cafe is the fame as if held up with a string, with one end in each hand, upon a proper balance ; and this fub- duple proportion will still remain, though an upper pulley were joined to the lower. The upper pulley alone doth not abate any thing of the weight: it is the fame thing, whether the half-weight is sustained equal to the hook, by which one end of the cord is fastened, a? the weight is altered by the lower pulley alone. Now, as one of the lower pullies doth abate half of that heaviness which the weight hath in itself, and cause the power to be in a subduple proportion unto it, so two do abate the half of that which doth remain, and cause a sub- quadruple proportion between the weight and the power; three a subsextuple ; and so on to as many as may be required : for they will still diminish the weight according to this proportion. Suppose the weight in itself to be looolb. the applying it to one of those lower pullies will make it but 500 ; two of them but 250 ; three of them 125, &c. It is not material to the force of this instrument, whether the rundles of it be big or little ; if they be made equal to one another, in their several stations. But it is most convenient, that the upper should each ot them increase as they are higher ; because by this means the cords will be kept from tangling : these pullies may be multiplied according to sundry sttuations. By these examples an invention is easily formed, for a uian to draw himself up to any conceivable The Universal Brinish. Builder. 19 conceivable height, and familiarly reduced may be of much service for particular uses, when occasion requires a reparation to ceilings of towers, domes, cathedrals, &c. and this may be effected with so little trouble and expence as two pushes, one above and another below, to the upper one must be fixed a hook, and hung at the top, which may be done on the outside; tire end of the cord fixed to the center of the top pulley; and put first round the bottom rundle, then the top, the other end of the cord a man may have in his hand to draw himself up by, or to any machine that he may require for his tools, &c.—To the execution of this will require but little more than half his weight, or if the pullies were multiplied, it may be done with half that force, and so on according to the forementioned proportions. From what hath been said of pullies, it is easy to conceive, from their natural effects what great performances might be wrought by these faculties being instruments of infinite strength: It is reported of Archimedes , that with an engine of pullies to which he applied only his left arm he lifted up 5000 bushels of corn at once-, and drew up a ship with all her lading upon dry ground; and all with a threefold pulley.—But herein I must beg Archimedus s pardon for telling him he was under a grand mistake: for it is not possible that these alone should serve for the motion of such a weight; because such an engine can but make a fubfextuple, or at most a fubfebtu- 1 ble proportion, between the weight and peswer: which is by far too little to reconcile the strength of a man to such ponderosities.—How many were easy to find out, if we did but know the weight of those ancient measures ; supposing them to be the fame with our English bushel, which weighs 64 pounds : the whole would then amount to 320,000; half of C 2 which 20 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, which would be lightened by the first pulley, and half of the remains by the second; and so on in this fubduple proportion. And if we do but consider a man’s hand to be as 50 pounds weight, it will easily be demonstrated, and will take at least ten or twelve pullies to effefl it. LECTURE VI. Of the Wedge. T HE first mechanical faculty is theWedge, which is a well known instrument, and is of the greatest utility inniedling up old houses, cleaving of wood, &c. The efficacy and great strength of it may be resolved and particularized, First, by the form of it, Secondly, by the manner whereby the power is impreffed upon it; which is by the force of blows; and is called percussion. First, the form of it represents two leavers; and is a general rule, that the more acute the angles are, so much more easy will their motion be; the force being more easily impressed, and the space wherein the body is moved being so much the less. The second particular whereby this faculty hath its force, is the manner whereby the force is impressed upon it; which is by a stroke or blown The efficacy of it doth far exceed any other force: for though we suppose a wedge to be laid or fixed in a piece of timber (in a position for cleaving) and pressed down with ever so great a strength, nay though we were to apply the force of the other mechanical instruments, the screw, pulley, &c. yet the effect would not be adequate to abloyv. The true definition of this is perhaps one of the greatest fubtilties in nature, nor is it in ray opinion fully explained by any author sr The Universal British Builder. thor who has undertaken the resolution of it: and yet to me seems no other than the celerity of the blow emitted to effect it. Those who attribute it to swiftness alone, have not given it a proper thought; for if so, a blow with a light weapon would exceed any other force. According to this, how comes it to pass that an arrow or bullet discharged near at hand, is yet notwithstanding much less than at a proper distance ; when the violence whereby they are carried is most fresh, and in all probability the motion most swift ? I think the first and greatest consideration is the quality and weight of the instrument by which the blow is given; secondly the space or distance through which it passes. And First, If the instrument by which you mean to effect the motion, is not proportionable to the strength or force required, the swiftness or rapidity of the blow will not serve to accomplish it. Ana Secondly, If the space or distance through which the force must pass be not sufficient, to acquire the requisite celerity, it will add nothing to the purport, supposing the fledge or instrument contained a double proportion of weight; and therefore may be reduced to the following example : As the weight of the instrument is to the power of the wedge, so is the celerity of the blow to the distance required to effect it. LECTURE VII. Os the Screw. r T^HAT which is usually recited for the sixth J- mechanical faculty is the Screw; which may be called a kind of wedge, multiplied or continued round 22 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, round by an Helical revolution about the body of a cylinder; receiving its motion not from a stroke, but a leaver or handle at one end of it; and is usually distinguished by the names of male and female. The male is the fore-mentioned screw ; the female is the nut which receives it. The quality of this faculty far exceeds any of the rest, for that use to which it is generally applied ; as, in printing, extracting and squeezing out the juice of fruits, &c. and in the execution of this instrument the strength of one man will be more forcible than the weight of a whole mountain. It is also used for lifting and raising great weights, and is much more practicable than any instrument made of wheels, pulleys, &c. The great advantage of this faculty above the rest doth consist chiefly in this; the other instruments do require so much strength for the supporting of the weight to be moved as may be equal to it, beside that other fuper-added power whereby it is out-weighed and moved ; so that in the operation by these a man does always spend himself in a continued labour. Thus for example : Any weight that is lifted up by awheel or pulley, will of itself recline, if there be not an equal power to sustain it: but in the composure of the screw, this inconvenience is perfectly remedied ; for so much as is communicated unto this faculty from the power that is applied to it, is still retained by the very frame and nature of the instrument itself; since the motion cannot return, but by the handle of the leaver which effected it; so that all the strength of the power may be employed in the motion of the weight, and none spent in sustaining of it. The principal defect of the screw is, that in a strort space it will be worked to its full length : and then it cannot The Universal British Builder. 2Z not be of further use for the continuing of the motion ; unless (as before observed) it be returned back by the same instrument that did work it. Though this most noble and facile of all mechanic faculties is not so much as mentioned by some of the ancients, especially Aristotle ; yet I cannot help thinking, that most of the wonders performed of old may chiefly be attributed to the execution of this instrument, because no other invention could be so applicable to time, as what might be made and contrived by certain screws. Amongst the Jews we read of Solomon s temple, which for its state and magnificence might have been justly reckoned amongst the other wonders of the world : we read of pillars of brass eighteen cubits high, and twelve cubits round, great and costly stones for the foundation of it. Jofephus tells us, that some of them were forty-five cubits long : and again he mentions the famous towers built by Herod, wherein every stone was ol white marble, twenty cubits long, ten broad, and five thick ; and which was the greatest wonder, the old wall itself stood upon a steep rising ground, and yet the hills upon it, on the tops of which these towers were built, and were above thirty cubits high ; so that it is scarce conceivable by what strength so manv stones, of such great magnitude, were conveyed thither. Amongst the Grecians we read of the Ephejian temple dedicated to Diana, wherein there was an hundred and twenty-feven columns, made of so many several stones, each of them sixty feet high, being all taken out of the quarries of A sia. There were besides at Rome sundry obelisks made of so many stones all entire, some of them 40, lome 80, and others go cubits high; the chief of them 24 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, them were brought out of Egypt, where they were dug out of certain quarries, and there wrought into form, and afterwards, not without incredible labour and infinite charge, brought to Rome. Also about two hundred years ago there was erected an old obelisk, which had been dedicated to Julius Cesar: it was one intire stone, being a kind of spotted marble; the height of it was one hundred and seven feet; the breadth of it at the bottom twelve feet; at the top eight feet: it was removed at the charge of Pope Sextus the Fifth from the left side of the Vatican, to a more eminent place. The moving of this obelisk is celebrated by many writers; all of them speaking of it with great wonder and praise. The executing in former days such great wonders may seem to infer, that these mechanical arts are now lost amongst the many other ruins of time; which, notwithstanding, cannot by any means be granted, without much ingratitude to the present age.—I believe if a proper examination were made into the merits of some now living, I am persuaded we should not find it a want of method that disables them; but because we have not either the fame materials, or motives to attempt such works, or the means to effect them, as the ancients had. The present age is much more active than the ancients; every man now finds so much business for the present, that he has not leisure to trouble himself with things that can never be of use to him, and therefore in many respects there is a great disproportion betwixt the incitements of those former times, and the present age with regard to such magnificent attempts. And moreover, as we differ much in the motives, so likewise do we in the means of effecting them. 1 brick —6 times. 2 6 S Deduct front door. Ft. In. 7 °f4 bricks. Z Hi 1 Deduct windows back front. Ft. In. 8 10) >4 bricks—q times. 3 4L d To add under windows as before. Ft. In. 3 4 2 5 The first is the length and height of the basement story ; next deduct the windows and doors in the front. In taking the deductions of windows, I think it the most . familiar method to take the whole opening from the floor to the top, and after add the pieces under the sash- frame, because of the different thickness.— See the example. Next take the breast of chimnies as they project into therooms, which my reader will observe are all to be measured as solid, on account of the trouble, and pargetting the inside. The method is to take the height to the turning of the trimmer, and the width of thebreast, and after count the number of bricks it is in The Universal British Builder. 55 in thickness; then deduct the opening. Kitchen chimney to add. Ft. In. 9 6 o Height. 6 Width. bricks. The opening of chimney to deduct. Ft. In. 4 3 bricks. 4 6)0 And in the same manner proceed with every deduction of inner rooms in every llory, and the addition of chimnies, &c. In taking the dimensions of vaults, first measure the hutments to the springing of the arch, and after bend your rods round the arch for the width. The length of the place is undoubtedly the length. If the vault is groined, after you have measured the superficial content you must also measure the run or angles of the groin, which are always considered at least as superficial feet extra, and sometimes an additional price allowed, which will be stipulated in the practice of brick-work hereafter. There is one thing in the dimensions of end-walls to vaults that ought to be noticed, which is the rising of the crown of the arch ; to which part the height of the end-walls must be taken. No allowance either for stuff or labour must be made for the want of the declivity of the arch, on account of the additional trouble of cutting and waste of bricks. The fame thing must also be observed with respect 56 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, to arches over doors ; no deduction must be made for them', because of the trouble. The dimensions for the height of such deductions must not be taken higher than the springing of the arch. As the measuring of chimnies in angles may be attended with, or seem a difficulty to those unacquainted with the method; therefore I propose the following rule for practice. Multiply half the breadth of the front or breast by the height, and that product by the number of half bricks contained in the half breast, (as to width) and divide the last product by 3, the content will be the content in feet; out of which the opening must be deducted, the fame as in square chimnies. See the example. Ft. In. Suppose a chimney that stands in an angle to be 6 feet 6inc. in breadth, the height of the story 10 feet, I place them as in the margin, and multiply half the breast, which is 3 ft. 3 inches, and after multiply that product by the number of half bricks the half breast contains, which we may suppose to be 8 ; aster I divide the last product by 3, the number of half bricks in the standard of brick - measurement, which gives the above dimension 86 feet of reduced brick-work; after this you must deduct the opening, as in others chimnies. By the 10 o 260 24 20 18 3 3 6 o 30 o 3 2 6 o 8 o o 86 other angle chimnies may be measured. above example all By The Universal British Builder. 57 By the fore-mentioned method all forts of common brick-work is measured; in every story the fame, according to the thickness ; re-bates, and deductions of the several walls, keeping every story separate till you come to the top of the edifice; the chimnies as lolid all the way up ; the parapet walls according to their thickness and dimensions ; the fame of gable-ends and pedements. These last mentioned articles may want some explanation with regard to the manner of measurement. RULE. Multiply the length of the base by half the perpendicular, or the perpendicular by half the base, the product is the superficial content. For instance : Suppose a gable-end, the base of which is 18 feet, the perpendicular or height 13 feet 6 inches, I set down 18 feet, the base, and multiply by 6 feet 9 inches, the half of the perpendicular, the product is 121 feet 6 inches, the superficial content; then count the number of half bricks it contains in thickness, and proceed in every respect as in other work. I think it needless to fay any more concerning the measurement of common brickwork. The manner of reducing walls to the standard thickness, I particularly mention in the practice of brick-work. The measuring gauged work, as arches, facios, cornices, &c. is as follows; and all valued by the foot superficial. The most familiar way of measuring a fkew-back- ed arch, is to take the length of the top and bottom, H and Ft. In. 18 0 6 9 !3 6 0 108 0 121 6 0 58 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, and add them together for the length, the height of the arch for the breadth. Circular arches must be measured as I have defined in my mensuration of circles, &c. Cornices of brick are measured as to length, and the mouldings girt with a string for the breadth. Facios are measured superficial. In taking the dimensions of brick-work it is usual to take and give within the compass of an inch. For instance : If your length or width runs better than half an inch, you take the full inch; if under halfan inch, nothing. For example: If a wall was 74 feet 6 inches, and rather above half an inch more, you call it 74 feet 7 inches; and if rather less than the half inch, it would only have been allowed 74 feet 6 inches. In measuring of arches, &c. it is necessary to measure to the part of an inch. J The next work that is done by bricklayers is tiling, which is measured by the square of ten feet each way, which multiplied into itself contains 100 superficial feet. There is no difficulty in taking the dimension or of measuring tiling ; only take the length of the roof between the gable-ends, and from the ridge to the eaves for the width; multiply the one into the other, and divide the product by too, or cut off one or two figures to the left hand for squares. For example: If the number of feet contained be hundreds, cut off one figure for squares, the rest is feet. If the number of feet be thousands, then cut off two figures to Square Ft the left for squares, (as in the margin.) 4,24 Suppose the side of a house contained - 423 feet, then cut off the 4, which is 4 square; the remains 23 feet. The fame 13,02 of thousands of feet, as in the margin. - Mr The Universal British Builder. 59 My reader must take notice, that deductions must be made for chimnies, and also in plain tiling. If there is a double course at the eaves, 4 inches more must be added to the width. With regard to hips and valiies, dormers or windows, where val- Jy-tiles are used, the run of the angles, valiies, and hips must be taken: and for every foot in length a foot superficial must be added to the measurement, on account of the trouble that attends them in practice. If your roofs be hipped, take the length at the bottom of the sides, and not measure the ends ; for it is a maxim, that the two ends make out the want of the sides. The last of bricklayers work to measure, is paving ; which is done by the yard, and which contains 9 superficial feet. In this fort of measurement there is no difficulty ; only take the length and breadth of the place in feet, and multiply them together, and divide the product by 9, the quotient will be the content in yards, and the remains feet: afterward make the necessary deductions, and your work is compleat. Of Carpenters Work to measure. The works of Carpenters to be measured are the carcases, of houses, roofs, naked floors, partitions, centers, carriages to stairs, rafters feet, eaves, gutters, lintels, bond-timber, door-cases, &c. which will be all treated of in the sequel. And, first, of the carcase of a framed building; the method of measuring which is to take the length of one side, and one end, and double it for the length, and that sum multiplied by the height taken from the bottom of the cell to the upper-side II 2 of 6o A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, of the raising plate; the product will be the content in feet, which being divided by too, or cut off as before observed, you will have the real number of squares the house contains, which is the rule of measurement for all timber-builbings-, roofs, naked floors, &c. EXAMPLE. Suppose a house 50 feet long, 25 feet high, and 20 feet wide, how many squares are contained ? First add 20, the, width of one end, to 50, the length ; that multiplied by 2, 50 gives 140, the length ; which being mul- 20 tiplied by 25, the height, the product is --- 3500 feet, which being cut off as before 70 observed, the real content is 35 squares of 2 framing. To a house of these dimensions, note, in measuring the carcases of 140 houses no deductions must be made for 25 windows, doors, &c. the extra labour -- to such being more than adequate to the 700 value of the openings. 280 35-00 Of Roofing to measure. This fort of work is also measured by the square, the principles of which may be reduced to the following rule, whether true pitch, or the ends gable or not, viz. Multiply the building's length by the length of the raftor, and twice that product is the content in feet; then cut off as before observed, and the work is done. See the operation: If The Universal British Builder. 61 nt If the rasters are what is called true pitch, viz. as three-fourths of the width of the building, of then to the above building of 20 feet wide 50 of the rafters will be 15 feet, which being 15 k- multiplied into 50, the length, the pro- -■ duct is 750 feet; which being multiplied 250 by 2, gives 1^00 feet the content, which 50 cut off as before, and you will find 15 ■—— square in the roof to the above dimen- 750 id sions. 2 15,°° >0 . —- :o To measure a gable-end in carpenters work is the - fame as in brick-work, viz. multiply the width by '0 half the perpendicular, the product is the fuperfi- 2 cial content in feet. Note, the fame rule will serve for measuring the hip-ends of roofs, only making 0 the length of the raftor as the perpendicular. 5 Raftors feet and eaves boards are measured by the foot lineal, gutters and bearers per foot fuper- 0 ficial. Of Naked Floors to mecfure. These are all measured by the square ; the length and breadth are taken from the outside of the plates: if none are made use of, as in some countries, they are omitted, and lay the joists in the naked wall; in which cafe you must allow c> inches, or else measure the full extent of the joists, and from thence compute the squares contained by the above examples ; the fame of ceiling-joists, partitions, battening the walls, &c. allowing the deductions of doors, windows, &c. if they are agreed upon, else not. Of 6 2 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Of Centers to measure. Centers are measured by the square ; the dimensions are taken from the sweep of the arch, and the length of the place. Small centers to doors and apertures, &c. are measured by the foot superficial. Carriages to stairs are measured by the soot superficial; the leading pieces or strings by the foot solid; trusting of girdles by the foot lineal; door cafes of timber by the foot cube; lintels, bond timber, dif- charging-pieces, &c. are all per foot cube ; weather boarding per square ; trunks per foot. All the prices and real value are stipulated in the practice of carpenters work. Of Joiners Work to measure. The measurement of joiners work is attended with more difficulty than all the artificers work besides, merely owing to its extention, or great variety of practice, and the least understood of any, chiefly through a want of attention, or judicious enquiries into the length or consequence of time which every piece of work takes in the execution. Could this be once ascertained, the whole might as easily be reduced to a system as any other work. In defining the real principles and properties of this branch of business, I shall be as particular as the subject may require, both with respect to time and mode of measurement, in order to render the design as facile and useful as possible both to prqfestors of building, and others that may be desirous of making themselves fully acquainted with the practical requisites, as well as the mode of measuring a building. The Universal British Builder. 63 The work done by joiners in a building may be reckoned or defined, in the following short terms, to be every thing that is worked with a plain; therefore will need no farther explanation than what may be assigned in the different works as they occur. And first, of frontispieces. Of Frontispieces to measure. Frontispieces are measured and valued by the foot superficial, and every part thereof measured separately, and all bear a different price. But the best way of giving the learner an idea of this piece of workmanship will be to set down the different measurements by supposition, as before observed of brick-work. Of the Grounds and Tambes. Ft. In. 7 o Length' By 1 4 Width 1 twice! Grounds from the top of door to the top of pediment. Ft. In. 5 8 Width. 4 o Height. Columns with base and cap. Ft. In. 7 3 Length" 1 g Girt twice. First take the dimensions of the grounds at twice ; first to the height of the door, for the two jambs, and from thence to the top of the pede- ment, which must be taken to the extent of the height and width, making no deductions for the fan-light, nor what is cut off at the top, to form the pe- dement, on account of the trouble and labour 64 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, hour that attend them. First I take the supposed length and width of one front, stile, or jamb, and set it down as observed next the ground, above or under the pedement ; then I take the columns, the shaft, and base, and cap for the length, and the girt round the column for the width ; the sup- plinth length and breadth ; the trunks that stand perpendicular above the shaft of the column, for the architrave, friefe, and cornice,, to rest upon the next architrave. Level cornice; the scima recta that mitres to the raking- mould of the pedement ; length or cornice on both sides of the pedement; level blocks or mutules, raking ditto ; impost ; jamb - linings, bead, and flush; circular so- pheat ditto, and doorcase ; measured cubical. The ovlo double Subplinth. Ft. In. 2 g Length 4 Breadth twice. Trunks or grounds for the architrave, friefe, &c. Ft. In. 1 2 6 Length 2 Girt twice. Architrave. Ft. In. 2 6 Length ) 63 Breadth ) twice. Level cornice to the top of the facio. Ft. In. 3 o Length 10 Girt twice. Scima Recta level that mitres to the pedement. Ft. In. 1 3 Length 2j Girt Length of Cornice on both sides of the pedement. Ft. In. 5 9 Length x 2 Girt Mutules, or Blocks level. 6 The Universal British Builder. 65 ble measure. Fanlight, when measured by the foot, you mult take the width of the door and the height of the crown. Observe also in girting the impost, that you takefromthegrottnds, and extend the line all round the face of the moulding, and likewise the same with respect to the ovlo. Though the above dimensions are contingently set down, without propriety to their respective proportions, yetthe manner will serve to instruct the learner the same : after the measurements arethus taken, the mode of squaring them is familiar ; the different prices to all the dimensions will be considered in the practice of frontispieces. Ditto raking. 5 _ Impost round the Jamb- linings. Ft. In. 8 o Length 6 Girt Jamb-linings,bead,andflulh. Ft. In. 7 o Length 1 8 Breadth twice. Circular sopheat, bead, and fluff. Ft. In. 5 o Length ) Double 1 8 Breadth $ measure. Door-case. Ft. In. 7 4 Length ) Scantling 4 o Width $ 4 by 3. Ovlo round the circular head. Ft. In. 5 o Length ) Double 2 5 Girt $ measure. Fan-light. Ft. In. 3 6 Width 1 9 Height I Door 66 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Door bead and flush. Ft. In. 7 o 3 6 Cover boards and bearers. Ft. In. 6 o Length 1 6 Breadth. Of Floors to measure. Floors are measured by the square ; the dimensions are the full extent of the rooms both ways. Observe in measuring floors, that you make no deduction for the flab at the fire-place: the reason is, the putting round the border is always considered as equal to that part of the floor being laid out. What part of the floors is laid into the windows, closets, &c. mult be added. Of Dado to measure. Dado is measured by the yard; the dimensions are thus taken, viz. For the breadth, take from the floor to the under-side of the capping; the length is the round of the room, allowing an inch more at every angle; the length and breadth being multiplied together, give the content in feet; .after divide the product by 9, the quotient is the number of yards. Observe to deduct chimnies and doors. The reason the dimensions are thus taken for the the width of Dado, is, it is customary to consider the skirting at the same price; and as the Dado, does or The Universal British Builder. 67 or should go as low as the top of the skirting, there can be no error in such mode of measurement. When dado and skirting are of different prices they must be measured separate. Of Mouldings to measure. Mouldings are all measured lineal or superficial by the foot: when the former, you have nothing more to do than take the length; when the latter, you must girt all the face of mouldings with a string for the breadth, and the round of the room for the length : after deduct doors and chimnies. Sur-bafe mouldings are always girt over the face and round the capping ; the base moulding is girted as much as seen, and half an inch more allowed than is seen for the re-bate that stops the skirting. Architraves are taken with a string over the top and down both jambs for the length, and girted round the face and back to the wall for the breadth. Cornices per foot superficial, and are girt as much as is seen for their breadth: the round of the room for the length ; and so of all mouldings worked by hand. All house plain mouldings are per foot lineal. Wainfcotting is measured by the yard ; the height of the room for the breadth, and the girt or round of the room for the length. Observe in this to deduct doors and windows. Torus skirting is measured by the foot superficial; the breadth is got by a string girting the moulding to the floor; the round or extent of the place for the length. Observe, that this fort of skirting to flairs is always allowed double measure ; the fame of raking, dado mouldings, &c. if they are ramped, as the hand-rail of the stairs. I 2 Of 68 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Of Doors to measure . Doors have different rules of measurement; some by the foot, others by the yard. All framed doors are measured by the foot; batten and ledged doors by the yard. If they are what is called double doors, that is, framed and moulded on both sides, they are accounted as single measure, and a price stipu- lated accordingly. The dimensions are the neat height and width. Doors that are only moulded on one side, are called measure and half; batten and ledged doors single measure. All square framed doors are single measure. Of Columns to measure. Columns of the Ionic, Corinthian, or Composite orders are all taken separately from their bases and caps; first, the shaft, then the base and the caps likewise, being all of different prices. If the column or pilasters are fluted, you must girt round the flutes. They are all valued by the foot superficial. Door-cases and jamb-linings are measured and valued by the foot superficial. The length of the two jambs and the width of the opening is the length. The width of the lining girt down the rabbit for the breadth, single measure like wainscot. Os Window-Shutters to measure. Window-shutters and back-linings are all measured by the foot; the front shutters as measure and half. If they are only framed on one side, the back-flaps The Universal British Builder. 6g back-flaps and back-linings (ingle measure, whether framed, flush, or square. Backs and elbows and sopheats are by the foot single measure. Grounds to windows per foot superficial. All other grounds in general per foot run. Sajhes and Frames to measure. ) Sashes are measured and valued by the foot superficial. The dimensions are thus taken: the two heights of fashes are added for the length ; the width of the frame for the breadth. Sometimes the fashes and frames are valued together; when so the exterior parts of the sash-frame are the bounds of dimensions. Sometimes sash-frames are done per piece. All circular headed fashes are only allowed double measure. In some counties they have a method of girting all the bars of fashes both ways ; but this is obsolete, and ought to be abolished every where. Of Chimncy-pieces to measure. Chimney-pieces of wood are measured by the foot superficial and lineal, according as they are finished. First the grounds are per foot superficial. If the chimney-piece has no ornaments about it, the architrave, frieie, and cornice may be taken as cither mouldings, in the manner of the former observations on frontispieces. If there are terms at the sides and ornaments, these must be valued separately. So likewise of ornaments in the friefe, (lutings, frets, &c. in the cornice ; and are per foot run, and a price according to their value. Of 70 A KfeV'tb Civil Architecture i Or* Of Stairs to measure . Stairs are measured and valued by the foot: the dimensions taken by a line bended or girted down; the riser and tread over the nosings* from top to bottom for the length: the breadth is the width or length of the step. Common stairs are sometimes done at so much per story. Hand-rails to stairs are sometimes measured by the foot superficial, sometimes the foot lineal. When the former, the rail is girted round for the breadth, and the streight part of the rail for the length. With respect to ramps, twists, scrolls, &c. they must be taken separate, because they are always double measure. ‘ The banisters and newels at per piece ; the strings per foot superficial, girted as other architraves; brackets at per piece. . Sometimes hand-rails to stairs are valued with the brackets, strings, and banisters, at per foot superficial, and the dimensions taken in the following manner: For the breadth take a string, and girt from the top or middle of the rail down the banisters, and over the string for the width ; the length of the rail from top to bottom is the length. But for the particulars of stairs in every respect, you must turn to the practice of them. My reader must observe, in taking the different dimensions, to be particularly careful in his book, to keep every work separate. The best method of measuring joiners work through a whole house, is to keep a length or leaf for all forts of work of one price, and only make observations on the different stories. Suppose -The Universal British Builder, 7 1 Suppose the following to he a sketch of leaves. Dado ground-floor. Ft. In. *1 \ k. \ E ^ ]or 3 ^ ^ l W. parlor 2 jBd ^ 3° 3M Hlll 2 ^B.S '' 36 7 l. e 2 5B. s -- d Study Mouldings to ditto. Base and impost. 48 6 L.' 3 B. Sur-base. 48 6 L. SB.. East-front parlor 39 4 Bfl 3 L. -vWest par- 39 4 L. I lor 5 B.J 30 3 Base 30 A Sur-base 5 j ha 36 7 Base 0 3 36 7 Sur-base o 5 2 cp * e e- *■< Architraves to ditto. Architraves to Windows. 18 o), • o s5 twic twice East Ditto osDoors ^ Parlor. 3 I twice o 8) Windows 18 o 8 ' twice __ iWest Ditto Doors. P arlor !7 3 ' 8 twice Window 18 o~] 8 I Door *7 3 . 8J \ Study. In the above manner it will be requisite to place the dimensions, so as to avoid perplexity, keeping other leaves for floors, window-lhutters, &c. and every floor separate; by which means you will avoid an infinite trouble when you come to square the dimensions. Of $72 A Key to Civil Architecture t Or, Of Plasterers Work to measure. Plaisterers work hath in the manner of measurment (in some particulars) as much variety as joiners work, especially in ornament ceilings, which require great understanding, as well as an extensive practice, to come at a just criterion for the different enrichments, which are all taken and valued by the foot lineal and superficial. Sometimes they are done at a fixed price per ceiling; but a man must have great experience to guess at a matter of such consequence by the bare inspection of a drawing; although it is certain a man cannot do otherwise than guess at the value of some particulars, as figures, deities, trophies, &c. which ever vary with the subject. However, the first thing to be taken is the plain of the ceiling, which is by the yard; next the cornice, friese, with enrichments, &c. which must be girted as joiners work; the round of the room is the length. Having done this, proceed to take the ornaments upon the ceiling, in the following order; first, take all the mouldings lineal, whether carved or plain. If the mouldings are any of them cast, they must be noticed: If any of the mouldings are oval, circular &c. they must be considered as measure and half. Then take all the sweeps of foliage as superficial. In the following manner take the length and width of the square in which the ornaments are contained, and, according to their value, stipulate the price, as you go on, to every fort of work. To avoid perplexity, if there are any golicchi, frets, above three inches wide, they must be taken superficial, otherwise lineal. Ribbans over mouldings are run trophies, and all large conjuctions, per foot superficial : The Universal British Builder. nt rs e- ve nt he ire ist ch gi 73 sicial: figures are usually valued at per piece ; all enriched frieses, festoons, &c. per foot superficial; if frieses are cast, they are valued in the cornice ; belexion'mouldings are per foot lineal ; large pan- nels of stucco per foot; all walls and plain ceilings per yard : all circular work measure and half; Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite caps per foot superficial. Observe in measuring walls to make deductions for windows and chimnies. Of Glaziers Work to measure. Glaziers works are measured by the foot; the dimensions are taken in feet, inches, and parts of a foot: therefore it is requisite that glaziers should understand decimals ; though, for my own part, I should propose duodecimals, being quite as correct, and much more familiar and concise to learners. The two following examples will prove what has been advanced on this particular ; the one by decimals, the other by duodecimals: and although they both answer the intent, I think to learners the duodecimals ought to have the preference. Suppose a piece of glass leaded was to be 3 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches: decimals. By duodecimals. Ft. In. Ft. In. 3 >50 3 6 « 1 - 5° 1 6 17500 190 35° 3 6 5,2500 5 3 K By 74 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, By the former method (by decimals) it appears that the light of glass is 5 feet and 25 parts, equal to one-fourth of a foot; and by duodecimals 5 feet g inches, which is one quarter of a foot. My reader will observe, that in measuring sash-windows there is no occasion to take dimensions of more than one square; and that multiplied by the number of squares in a window, will give the content; which once got, requires no more than to add or multiply by the number of windows in the story, or of one size, and that sufficiently resolves the question. In some counties the glaziers only measure the exterior part of the glass for length and breadth, allowing nothing for the thickness of the bars: but this is an exorbitant way, and ought to be eradicated. Of Painters Work to measure. Painters work is measured by the fame rules as joiners, with this difference only, that they do or should measure all edges where the brush goes. But surveyors are not always so particular, and frequently allow no more measure to painters than joiners, except in cafe of doors, window-ffiutters, &c. which with painters are always double measure, the fame as any thing else that is painted on both sides: all wainscot, dado, moulding, doors, shutters, jamb-linings, architraves, &c. are measured by the yard ; cornices of all forts and single skirting by the foot run ; -frontispieces, &c. by the foot; fashes, sash-frames, casements, window-lights, &c. are done per piece. Of The Universal British Builder. 75 Os Masons Work to measure. Masons work is all measured by the foot, though with a difference, as cubical, superficial, and lineal. First, with respect to the cubical method, which is used for all blocks of stone, marble, &c. and which is in the manner of work always considered as such, when the thickness of the stones exceed 2 inches ; all under this standard are measured as superficial. When stones are or exceed the solid standard of 2 inches, they are first measured solid, and aster superficial, for the workmanship, with this restriction, that no more of the stone be measured than what appears without the wall; the same of all columns, pilasters, cornices, facios, rustics, &c. The superficial measure concerns all the pavings, floors, hearths, slabs, mantles, jambs, covings, &c. and the general dimensions of all labour; the run or lineal foot is used for all small abstracted mouldings, some carvings, frets, ornaments, &c. Observe, that masons girt all their moulding as the joiners do, and take their dimensions in feet, inches, and parts. The greatest difficulty in measuring masons work is in chimney-pieces, on account of the various modes and prices, and number of different dimensions. But fee the following example : First, take the dimensions of the flab ; then the mantle, or head-stone, being both of one length; add the two widths together, allowing an inch for the under-edge of the mantle more to the breadth. Secondly, take the length of the jambs, allowing an inch more to the length than is seen, for what goes behind the flab. If there are nosings and flips to the jambs, take the length as observed, and girt all that is seen for the width : next take the sire- K 2 stone, 76 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, stone - hearths, covings, &c. and measure all that appears in sight. If the friese, cornice, and ovlo are marble, they must be girted as the joiners do their work: the same of ornaments, frets, terms, stutings, Ac. and all valued accordingly. Os Carvers Work to measure. Carvers work is all measured by the foot superficial and lineal : by the former all capitols to columns, large ornaments, festoons, foliage, flutings, frets, &c. the latter is used for all small mouldings, ribbons, busies, &c. and the dimensions taken in the fame manner as observed in plaister ceilings. Os Slaters Work to measure. Slaters measure their work by the square, the same as tiling, both with respect to hips, vallies, double eaves courses, &c. therefore needs no farther comment than what has been already advanced. Having finished my dissertations and strictures on mechanic powers, the principles and properties of building in general, the five orders of architecture, measuring the different artificers works, &c. I shall now proceed, and relate what is necessary to be observed in the practice of different works as they occur in time and place. But before I begin, it will be. proper to fettle my criterion touching the universality both of the prices and estimations .01 the The Universal British Builder. 77 the several works in a building, as well in the very remote parts of the kingdom, as those more contiguous to the capital, which I very familiarly settle upon one general standard. Though the manner of fixing and stating a matter of such consequence, and seeming so full of exceptions, may appear an impossibility to some who have not enquired rationally into its principles ; yet I hope to evince to every workman of experience, that one schedule of prices with respect to labour will serve, or at least ought to serve for every city and principal town in the kingdom. I must own, there may be various objections alledged against this universal system, yet not one argument sufficient to turn the mode of the following plan. LECTURE XV. A new Plan for settling the Prices of Work done in a Building, all upon one Footing, both in London and every capital Town in the Kingdom. W Hosoever my reader is, whether architect, surveyor, master, or common journeyman, that may smile at an attempt so extravagant, I humbly beg for a moment a suspension'of his risible faculties, till he maturely weighs this matter; after which, I am fully persuaded, he will find sewer objections of its feasibility than he first imagined. If I consider it right, this great point has but two queries to be determined, which once answered will totally destroy every objection. The first is, whether a master in the country (if his work is executed as well) should bear a less price than the same work 78 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, work done by a London master in town ? The second is, whether a journeyman in the same case should receive the same wages of a country-master as are paid to journeymen m town? To the former of these questions I answer, yes; to the latter, no; and will endeavour to prove it. But before I give my own decision to this affair, I beg to introduce the opinion of a person of some abilities in one of the capital professions in a building relative to this universal scheme. " My friend,” says he, " this plan of allowing as great prices to country-masters as those in London will never answer, because they are not liable to half the expences, nor does their work cost them half the sum in point of labour, on account of the scanty wages which are given in the country, all over the kingdom ; therefore should have a price stipulated by a country-surveyor, according as the work may deserve.” Something of this kind I know runs in the notions of most people that think upon it. That masters in the country are not liable to such expences as masters in town, I will readily grant, both with respect to yards, house-rent, and stowage for their different materials; nor has a country- master in general half the business of a London one; and what is still more to his disadvantage, he is not required to finish his work with half the expedition. It is therefore upon this topic we should bend our thoughts: If a master in London can employ the year round 1H or 20 men, which may be called the medium, (being as many above as under this number) and a master in the country employs but 7 or 8, and both have their work at one price, we shall find that the London master will have it in his power to live considerably better, notwithstanding the difference The Universal British Builder. 79 difference of expences, as well as the advantage of wages, which some think to be very great. Every man of business, whether in town or country, Ihould be supported by his business, and reap such an allowance or emolument by his profession as may enable him to guard against the contingencies of a family, and in some sort equal to his industry. If it was possible for a country master to have as manyjobbs as the masters in London usually possess, and all required to be forwarded with the same expedition, their prices should be considerably lowered : but as that is a chance which never can happen, the reasons are obvious, that in this first respect no difference can be made without a visible injury, as will palpably appear upon enquiring into the difference of wages. Secondly, that men in the country should not have the same wages as journeymen in town, is evident from their want of experience both in the methods and instructions of work. My reader, I hope, does not suppose that I would propose country wages to a man of the first merit in his profession ; No. A man thus qualified, that hath had seven or eight years practice in London amongst the most capital of his branch, and has not imbibed any but judicious methods of working, and been in the full practice of such for some time, will be worth as much wages to a country master as a town one, and m reality more ; especially if he is impowered to forward his master’s business by his own advantageous methods. Notwithstanding there are many good workmen in the country that have never seen London, yet those compared to men of the above experience will in every point of practice be more deficient in the course of a week’s work than the difference of wages, supposing 8o A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, supposing the one to have 4s. or 5s. per week more wages.—I speak not this from speculation, but undeniable facts ; having myself been and examined into the nature of practice in almost every town in the kingdom, and have ever found, that if the masters were allowed the fame prices with the masters in London, notwithstanding the difference of men’s wages, with the fame number of men a London master would have had the above advantage in point of { irofits ; only with this observation, that the men rom London must be good, and such as have had the above advantages. It is true, that there are hundreds of men in London so bad, that one would think it almost impossible to fellow them, or even suppose that they could have served a proper time to any business ; and how to account for this otherwise than from a want of attention to their real interest, or proper good, would almost puzzle the greatest philosopher. For it is certain, that all trades and employs are so familiarized, and have at their heads such noble instructors, that with close application even the weakest capacity may be possessed of such points in practice as will enable him to deserve the - common wages. Those that arrive at a greater pitch of merit should be rewarded according to their industry. There is one thing which ought to be mentioned to country journeymen, that is, the little respect they pay to comparisons and arguments touching men of London experience ; for, fay they, we have worked with men from London at such and fuck gentlemen’s houses, but could not find any material difference between them and us that had never been there. This I believe to be often the cafe, and which reflects great weakness in the London masters, for sending to any country jobb, men that were not The Universal British Builder. 81 really proficients in their branch; for when masters want a number of men to go into the country they seldom enquire more into their characters than their stability. Being carpenters, if they have got a chest of tools, away they are are sent to finish something in a peculiar manner to what could in any wise be done by country-men, when perhaps some of these very men had not been six months in town. It ought to be a fixed rule in masters never to employ a man for a country jobb that was not approved an excellent workman; and moreover, he should be of a remote county or shire to that the work is done in, to subvert the proverb of a prophet in his own country having no honour. I hope from those hints, that no reasonable man will start an argument against the questions before stated, but freely allow a right for country-masters to have the fame prices as masters in town. I do not mean such as are exacted by some masters, but such as may be considered as just ones. I believe, upon a thorough review of the wages both in town and country, we should not (upon the whole) find much difference. In some respects the country-masters have the advantage, especially in some parts of carpenters work, as roofing, stairs, sashes, floors, and in many other branches of a building, and most of those things they get considerably less by, through a want of experience in the journeymen (notwithstanding their low wages) than the masters do in London ; not but there is room e- nough in both places for the journeymen’s wages to be raised; and if this scheme is not shortly put in execution, I am persuaded the consequences will be very alarming to all masters in the building branch. It was a piece of the weakest policy in the masterly carpenters 82 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, carpenters the last time the journeymen struck (for an advancement in wages, ten years ago) that they did not comply with their easy demands ; they would not then have had occasion to fear the present mode of architects engrossing the whole business into their own hands, which seems to be the general plan, if some stop is not immediately taken to prevent it; and none seems so promising as advancing the journeymens wages. The capital architects and surveyors that have adopted the plan of finding al] materials, and only allowing even principal -'Rasters a fort of prices like talk-masters for executing the work, do this through a knowledge of the exorbitant advantages that arise from work at the original customary prices ; and as this method is put in practice by the first men in the kingdom, the inferior surveyors, in order to be in the fashion, will soon follow their example ; not that I mean to infer, that customary prices are exorbitant. If journeymens wages were fettled in proportion, the present luxury of the times will not admit of abatements in any profestion. My reader must observe, since prices were settled for all works in the building branch, (though they every year vary in some particulars) that every business is improved in point of practice above one third; nay, in several points and parts, the work is done for one half the expence to masters that it cost them 20 years ago, and all through the assiduity and study of the journeymen, notwithstanding the masters will not give any more wages ; which sets them upon an exact parr with the surveyors in point of disposition ; each striving to engross the whole. The latter not content with the great allowance of five per cent. for the works they survey, but want to double it by the advantage of finding materials; The Universal British Builder. 83 for and as they have it in their power to colour their iey proceedings to the gentlemen with a view of parsi- iey mony, there is no doubt of their carrying their re- points in every respect; which will only pay the ifi- masters in their own coin, for their avaricious dispose sitions, in condemning to a life of slavery and in- :e n digence men of abilities, by whom they have their id- chief support. For considering the exorbitant price a r- of provisions, and every other incident to life, no an man that has any family can of 16s. per week more en than exist ; nor a single man ever get a coat to his T8 back, unless (if I may be allowed the phrase) he w- spares it out of his belly : therefore what better than >m llavery can we call it ? and yet at the fame time the sis masters enjoy a profit, (which results chiefly from he the mens labour) equal to the fortunes of some of in our nobility. Though this may seem strange to at some, I have had undeniable facts of many masters >i- in the building branches, whose business is worth 0* 20001. per annum, at this time. Therefore, I ot will appeal to every feeling heart, whether this 1- ought not to be a matter of great consideration, and 11 not beneath the thought of the legistature. y If I was not or might be thought too particular, si I would state the cafe of a carpenter, and leave I; the world to judge of the severity of his situation ; is and how unthinking a father must he be, who pro- st poses any emolument for a son who is apprenticed y to this ingenious, and well worthy the name of li- e beral art, if he has not almost as much to put him :s inpoffestion of, as will be a support without business ? it Every man, in the country in particular, from whence most of the journeymen in town generally f have their origin, in the raising of a family suits t his childrens occupations according to their strength or genius; though, at the fame time, he with fast. 2 vourable % 1 84 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, vourable incitements makes his will a fort of choice of their own. Him that seems athletic and sensible, or quick at learning fchool-exercifes, he proposes for a carpenter, and fays, if he turns out well, he’ll no doubt make his fortune.—Yes, adds the fond father, I make not the least doubt but he will have as much business as Mr. Whole-deal, our neighbour, and cut as great a figure in the world: —and all this without the last casualty ; no conk deration of the improbability of his getting to be a master at all, without doubt of interest and large connections ; if he does but get to be what is ulu- ally called a good hand in his business. Well: —We will fay he is bound an apprentice, for which his father gives 20 1 . finds him all his cloaths, and perhaps wasting ; and some fathers are obliged to find their sons tools during their servitude. But this we will omit; and take the ex- pence of his apprenticeship, cloaths, fpending-mo- nev, and the 20 1. he gives to be instructed in his business, at almost too 1 .— and when he is out of his time, through the little practice allotted to apprentices, and the many requisites to be attained before he can have any idea of this extensive branch, (save a little use of his tools,) he is almost as much to seek as when he first went apprentice; only with this observation, that he has learnt so much as gives him an understanding to know that he must learn ten times more before he is fit to be a master. Then he commences journeyman, with a view of getting his business, and works for a year or two in the country ; still he finds himself far short of what he wants, and nothing then will serve but coming to London ; for there, fays he, I {hall have practice enough, and fee through my business three or four times a year. When he gets to London, !| The Universal British Builder. % London, the great object is a chest of tools, which he either must be possessed of, or cannot be forwarded in the least in his business.— If his father is in circumstances, application is made, and ten guineas remitted to get him the necessary implements ; after he has got these, he naturally makes to a good shop, there by degrees he creeps on for perhaps two years before a good jobb is put into his hand ; if he is assiduous, and turns it quick out of hand, he is kept at that fort of work as long as he stays at that shop : then naturally he removes to another place, and fees different methods ; but not having capability or practice to judge for himself, he is led by the dictates of every foreman, till by close application to his room, learning to draw all the time, and with a continuance for seven years in London, he may fay, that he is a good journeyman, and can execute any design or drawing given well. When this is done, there are 9 years elapsed after his apprenticeship. Perhaps his father may be dead; the situation he proposed for him, occupied by another; the connections and families whose interest he depended on, are scattered, and no likelihood of doing any good in the country ; the filial tenderness of his parents, by long absence, is probably abated ; and as there is no chance of his being a master there, his friends advise him to do something in London. But supposing it not so, and that there was a chance of his being a master in the country, when he was qualified, as every man will (if there is a possibility) naturally tend towards home, where his friends or interest lie, especially if he lives to a thinking age : the gay luxuries of the town may indeed for a time attract, and lull a man into a dream of insensibility ; but once awaked from this, 86 , A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, this, his thoughts immediately turn upon his happi. ness, which can in no-wise be established but where his interest lies. But all this time my hero before-mentioned, if he has the opportunity before observed, is not the least qualified for the undertaking. “ Why not?” fays his father; " if he can do any thing well, he is certainly fit for a master.”—I answer, No. The principal requisites of a master, he is quite at a loss for; which are, Estimating the consequence of building in general, the value of the different artificers work, their modes of measurement, as well as the established maxims of practice in all the branches; without a knowledge of which he will ever be at a loss :—and how to come at those is almost as difficult as the practical part of his business. —There is no way to make himself master of them, but by a great expence; or if he is qualified to commence clerk to some great shop, where he may have the advantage of over-hauling his master’s books and connections, such an opportunity pursued with diligence, and by comparing the remarks within his own experience, he may in time fish out such a knowledge as may enable him to understand enough to be a master, if he has wherewithal to push himself forward. But then there is the chance of procuring business, and other incidents in life, before a man is assured of getting a proper provision for a family. Just autne time when other professions, that have opportunities and circumstances in life, are thinking of retiring, a carpenter and joiner has learnt but just enough to set up master ; and all this time the person mentioned must be cut out for business, void of every principle of extravagance, or he could not arrive to this in any time during the course of his 87 The Universal British Builder. his life, but be confined to a state of servitude and hard labour as long as he lives; which is the unhappy cafe of hundreds at this time in London. •— Numbers, to my knowledge, that have most of the capabilities mentioned, and have undergone the fame regimen to attain them, are now working for the poor pittance of 17s. or 18s. per week; and because they mistook their path, and entered into a flattering state of happiness by marriage, before they were well apprized of the fatal consequences, are now consigned to all the horrors of poverty and despair, never to be relieved till death. Any reasonable man that will properly consider the above-mentioned case, will rather approve than condemn my undertaking, for endeavouring to give every journeyman a knowledge of the principles and advantages of his business. None but the masters can reject it; and only those who are not content with a tradesman’s prosit. But let who will disapprove of the plan, I am conscious of the rectitude of my intent, and have long considered it as an indispensible duty to do so much for the universal benefit of mankind. LECTURE XVI. Os the Practice of Brick-work. T HE utility and common practice of building all our edifices of brick, both in London and the country, arises from motives too obvious to need a definition ; since it is generally considered to be much the cheapest, as well as the most eligible substance that can be invented for the purpose, both in point of beauty and duration, and inferior to nothing but wrought-stone. The 88 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, The great principle in the practice of brick-work lays in the proclivity, or certain motion of absolute gravity, caused by a quantity or multiplicity of substance being added or fixed in resistible matter; therefore naturally tends downwards, according to the weight and power impressed. From which observations, the requisite inferences may be drawn, f and such remarks made, as may enable the jour- : neyman to erect his works with such accuracy that no bad consequences may attend, and, moreover* avoid unnatural settlements. And first it may not be amiss to consider the motive of this above-mentioned proclivity; which is chiefly caused through the yielding mixture of the matter of which mortar is composed, and cannot well be reduced to any system of certainty ; because the absolute weight of a brick, or any other sub- : stance laid in mortar, will naturally decline according to the substance or quality of it; in which place J -articular care should be taken, that it is of a regu- ar quality all the way through the building; and likewise that the same force should be used to one brick as another; I mean the stroke of the trowel; a thing, or point in practice, of much more consequence than is usually thought of: for if a brick be actuated upon by a blow, it will be a much greater pressure upon it than the absolute weight of twenty bricks ; before which can be properly laid, in form and arrangement, with the advantage of the weather in a favourable season, may be so dried or consolidated that no settlement can ensue from other defects than that of an over-sight in the foundation, which must be adhered to, and prevented by the methods laid down of foundations, in my lecture of strength. The many bad effects that arise from mortar not being of a proper quality, should make masters The Universal British Builder. 89 masters very cautious in the preparation of it, as well as the certain quantity of materials of which it is composed, that the whole structure may be of one substance. There is one thing which often causes a bulging in large flank-walls, especially when they are not properly set off on both sides ; that is, the irregular method of laying bricks too high on the front edge ; that, and building the walls too high on one side, without continuing the other, often causes the above defects. Notwithstanding, of the two evils this is the least; and bricks, if any thing, should incline rather to the middle of the wall, that one half of the wall may be a shore to the other. But this method, too much followed, will be more hurtful than beneficial ; because the full width of the wall doth not take its absolute weight, and entirely removes the specific gravity from its first line of direction, which in all walls should be perpendicular and united; whereas if the above method is stretched to excess, and the walls have a fuper-incumbent weight to bear adequate to their full strength, a disjunctive digression is made from the right line of direction: the conjunctive strength becomes divided ; and instead of a whole or united support from the wall, its strength is separated in the middle, and takes two lateral bearings of gravity ; each insufficient for the purpose; therefore, like a man over-loaded either upon his head or shoulders, naturally bends and stoops to the force impressed: in which mutable state the above grievances usually happen. Another great defect we frequently fee in the fronts of houses ; in some of the principal ornaments of brick-work, viz. arches over windows, &c. and which is too often caused by a want of experience in the rubbing of them; which is the most difficult M part go A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, part of the branch, and ought to be very well considered. The faults I mean, are the bulging or convex situation we often see arches in, after the houses are finished, and sometimes loose in the key or center bond. The first of these defects, which appears to be caused by too much weight, is in reality no more than a fault in the practice of rubbing the bricks too much off’ on the insides : for it should be a standing maxim (if you expect them to appear streight under their proper weight) to make them the exact gauge on the inside, that they bear upon the front edges: by which means their geometrical bearings are united, and all tend to one center of gravity. The latter observation, of camber arches not being skewed enough, is an egregious fault; because it takes greatly from the beauty of the arch, as well as its signisicancy. The proper method of skewing all camber arches should be one third of their height. For instance : If an arch is 9 inches high, it should skew three inches; one of twelve inches, 4 ; one of 1 5 ditto, 5 ; and so of all the numbers between those. Observe, in dividing the arch, that the quantity consists of an odd number: by so doing, you will have proper bond; and the Key-bond in the middle of the arches: in which state it must always be, both for strength and beauty. Likewise observe, that arches are all drawn from one center; the real point of camber arches is got from the above proportion. First, divide the height of the arch in three parts ; one is the dimensions for the skewing; a line drawn from that through the point at the bottom to the perpendicular of the middle of the arch, gives the center; to which all the rest must be drawn. in brickwork : I here are many other difficult jobbs The Universal British Builder. 9 * work : as groins, niches, circular arches upon circular plans, &c. all which I {hall mention in time and place. And, firs, of Brick-groins. A groin is the intersecting or meeting of two circles, &c. upon their diagonal elevations drawn upon the different sides of a square, or any other figure, and whose principle of strength lies in the united force of elevation ; divided by geometrical proportions to one certain gravity ; which is the center to which all the bearings tend. The difficulty that attends the execution of a brick-groin lies in the peculiar mode of appropriating proper bond at the intersecting of the two circles as they gradually rife to the crown, to an exact point; in the meeting or intersecting of those angles will be formed a kind of rib in the inside, which should be particularly streight and perpendicular to a diagonal line drawn upon the plan. There is no definition of a thing of this fort, either by lines or description, equal to what will occur to the learner in the practice of them. After the centers are set, let the bricklayer apply two or three bricks to an angle ; by which means he will effectually fee how to cut them as well as the requisites of bond. There is nothing so certain as practice for the solving any difficulty ; it is by this axiom that every proof is founded, and without which the most flagrant idea of lines, and theoretical speculation, would be in many cafes defective ; because a false notion, or a wrong conception, might lead the wisest man into an error. It is upon this principle of practice, I propose to M 2 bring g2 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, bring my analysis to the understanding of the most illiterate ; by eradicating all superfluous lines set down by architects, and only point out such rules of reason and practice as may suit the weakest to proceed by. Notwithstanding, I must own that lines are the bases of all mechanic powers, arts, and practices ; yet there are hundreds of useful members of the community that never have it in their power to acquire the properties of one ; yet with practical instructions may make useful journeymen, and be taught to do any thing tolerably : but the instructions must be given in a manner suiting their capacities, and (as I before observed) by practical rules. To pretend to shew numbers of bricklayers lines for doing their work, you may as well (hew them Arabic : the same may be said os hundreds of carpenters, &c. If it was possible for journeymen to understand beyond what I have mentioned, we might long have bid adieu to all commentators; since Palladio left rules sufficient for men to work by. But these would not answer the purpose of the ignorant; nor has any author yet, either ancient or modern, been clear enough for a common journeyman to understand them ; there being always some points, which are the requisites that lead directly to the matter, omitted; and which but few, that have an inferior genius to the author himself, can find out; yet are simple enough in the main; but for want of being particulary noticed, have hitherto escaped thousands. To set all these things in a proper degree of light, is the purport of the following design ; and I sincerely wish it may have as good an esses! as it is universally intended. But to return to the groins. The workman must observe, that the manner of turning groins with respect The Universal British Builder. 93 st pest to the sides, is the fame as other arches and T centers, except in the angles, which must he traced :s for its properties, as I have observed by applying o the bricks ; and if the arch is to be rubbed and gaug- tt ed, you must divide each arch into an exact num- d her os parts, and extend the lines till they meet in >- the groin : by which means you will easily find the r curve for the angle, from which you must make ft your templets : observe, in fixing the centers, that i, the carpenters raise them something higher at the e crown, to allow for settling, which frequently hap- r pens; sometimes by the pressure upon the butments, 1 otherwise from the length of the crown. Observe in building of vaults, that the piers or s butments are of sufficient strength; all butments i to vaults, whether groined, or only arched, should be one sixth of the width of the span ; and, more- > over, if there is any great weight to be sustained, : bridgings of timber Ihould be framed to discharge ; the weight from the crown of the arch : after a vault : or groin is finished, it is highly necessary to pour on ^ a mixture of terras, or lime and water, on the crown; and give it some little time to dry, before you strike the centers, in order to cement the whole together. Rough groins have no more value put upon them than common vaults, which are included at per rod with common brick-work, except the angles of groins, which are measured after run lineal, and sometimes allowed by surveyors is. per foot; many masters charge is. 2 d. But as the stuff is reckoned and valued in the common measurement, and a man will cut and turn io feet run in a day, 8d. per foot should be the stipulated price for rough groins : which will pay for the waste of stuff, and allow a sufficient prosit to a master. Groined 94 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Groined vaults rubbed and gauged are worth is. per foot superficial, and the run of angles 2s. 6d. Os a Nich in Brick-work. A nich is the inner or concave quarter of a globe, and usually made in walls on the exterior parts of a building, to place figures or statues in. The practice of this in brick-work is the most difficult part of the profession, on account of the very thin size the bricks are obliged to be reduced to down at the inner circle, as they cannot extend beyond the thickness of one brick at the crown or top ; it being usual, as well as much the neatest method, to make all the courses standing. The most familiar way to reduce this point to practice, is to draw the front, back, &c. and make a templet of pasteboard, after you have divided the arch for the number of bricks. My reader must observe, that one templet for the standing courses will answer for the front, and one for the side of the brick; and at the top of the streight part, from whence the nich takes its spring, you must remember to make a circle of the diameter of 8 or 9 inches, and cut this out of pasteboard also, and divide it into the fame number of parts as the outward circle ; from which you will get the width of your front-templet at the bottom. The reason of this inner circle is to cut off the thin conjunction of points that must all finish in the center, and which in bricks could never be worked to that nicety; it being impossible to cut bricks with any accuracy nearer than half an inch thick: within the inner circle the bricks must be lying. It will be necessary to have one templet made convex, to try the faces The Universal British Builder. 95 faces of bricks to, as well as setting of them when they are gauged. The stone you rub the faces of the bricks upon, must be cut at one end in the exact form of the nich, or it will be impossible to face them proper. The bevel of the flat sides of the bricks is got by dividing the back into the number of parts with the front, and all struck to the center : from the circle of the front of one brick set your bevel, which will answer for the sides of the whole. Observe, that the bricks hold their full gauge at the back, or when you come to set them you will have much trouble. Jobbs of this kind are very rare : and when they happen, should bear a price equal to their value, which should not be less than Z s. per foot, and allowed double measure. A Circular Arch upon a Circular Plan. There is not the difficulty in an arch of this construction in brick-work, that is usually considered ; the principal thing to be thought of, is the scheme for striking the front of the bricks, which once properly understood, will render the practice exceedingly familiar. There is another consideration to be observed, which is the soffit of the bricks to these arches, and must bear the exact gauge behind as before, in order to secure the strength and key, that the arch may have no inclination to a center, otherwise than what tends to its gravity. The best practical method I can allude to, is, after you have divided the arch, and settled your bond in front, make two moulds to the sweep of the wall, after six 2 uprights of wood a little above the top of the arch, at the top g 6 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, top fix one, and let the other be moved down to the top of the courses as they gradually rife ; then with a rod, with a prick in the end, clapped close to those two ribs, strike the top-sides of every brick; the under-side may be marked by the preceding brick : and in this manner proceed all the way, till you get to the top, which will give the exact curve required to the wall and perpendicular to the ground plan. A cimma eleptical arch,upon the above plan,may be executed in the fame manner respecting the front, and soffit likewise. Arches that splay in the jambs, and both rife to one height, must be reduced to practice in the following manner : First, Divide the arches on both sides into an exact number of bricks; and, having drawn the width of the wall, and laid down the arches on both sides, let fall perpendiculars from the different ends of the bricks on both sides, and draw parallel lines into each by the splay of the wall, which will give the exact size of the bricks in the soffit, and likewise the splay of the face of the bricks on both sides. Of the Quantity of Materials to a Rod of Brick-worh The requisite quantity of materials to a rod of brick-work, which is the standard for valuing, as well as taking dimensions ; the master’s prices, and those stipulated by surveyors, come next within our notice, as well as the just calculation for London and every capital town in the kingdom, divested of all the errors of surveyors, and extravagant exactions of some masters. And, first, it will not be amiss to mention, that a rod is a measure of ibjfcet, which multiplied into itself contains 272 feet and one quarter to one brick and The Universal British Builder. 97 and half thick, which is the standard on which the price is fixed : let the wall consist of what number of bricks in thickness soever/they are always reduced to a system by the following rule : Multiply the superficial content of the wall by the number of half bricks it contains in thickness ; and divide that product by 3 ; the quotient will be the content in feet, to the standard. — Lastly, divide that quotient by 272, the number of superficial feet in a rod, and the last quotient will be the content in rods, and the remains feet. See the example : Suppose the dimensions of a wall was 64 feet 6 inches by 24 feet 6 inches, and three bricks thick, first multiply 64 feet 6 inches by 24 feet 6 inches, the product is 1580 3, which I multiply by 6, the number of half bricks the wall contains ; the product is 9481 feet 6 inches, which I divide by 3, the number of half bricks in the standard ; the quotient is 3163 and 2 parts ; which I divide by 272, the number of superficial feet in a rod ; the last quotient is 11 rods and 71 feet. 64 6 24 6 3 2 3 12 158° 3 3 I 948i 6 j 3160 9 4 3 18 18 N 272 58 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, 272 j 3160 2 | 11 272 440 272 168 Whenever it happens that there is $8 J 168 [ 2 a largeremains of feet, you must divide 136 them by 68, the number of feet in a — quarter of a rod, which will bring you 32 nearer, if you have but one num- — her : if many, add them all together : and this rule will serve for every subject. According to a wall of the above dimensions, Sq. Q. Ft. the quantity of reduced brick-work is 11 232 11 square, 1 quarter, and 3 feet, as ■- in the margin. Note. Though a rod contains 272 ? feet, the quarter is always rejected : then divide by 272, which is near enough for brick-work, as a quarter of a foot, stuff and labour, cannot be worth more than two-pence, whice is too trivial to mention in an eight pound matter. The fame of the parts of a foot to be divided, as in the above example. Having given an example of measuring brickwork, in order to come at the value we must consider the quantity as well as the quality of the materials along with the exact time it takes to execute it. And, first:, of materials. My reader must observe, that to every rod of brick-work is required 4400, and of some (as bricks vary much in size) 4500 of bricks, one load of lime, or 32 bushels of lime, and two loads of sand, which is the nearest The Universal British Builder. gg • general calculation that can be made. I have, notwithstanding, seen bricks of such a size that 4000 of them would have walled a rod: but those are rarely to be met with; therefore we must abide by the above number. The same of lime and sand, which may vary a little according as they are in goodness. There are two forts of lime; the one made of chalk, the other of stone: the latter in point of strength and quality deserves much the preference. There are also different sorts of sand, and equally good ; but that which ought to be preferred for building is river-fand, and is much the best in a strong current, Of this you may put three of sand to one of lime that is made of stone ; if of chalk, only two of sand, and one of lime. There is a kind of white pit-fand in many counties ; but it is not so good as red. My reader must observe, that with regard to materials no universal standard can be found, because bricks and lime vary in every county ; therefore I shall fix a price for a rod of brick-work in London , and after make a table to serve the country, according as materials vary in value. But first let us enquire into the labour which a rod of brick-work requires. My reader must allow, that in order to settle a general plan for labour, we must either account the mean proportion of time, or stipulate the best wages to the least that reason can allow ; which, to a good journeyman of Zs. per day, will take 4 days, and the like quantity or length of time to a- labourer, besides the making the mortar, &c. Next, my reader must observe, that bricks in London are per thousand from il. to il. 10s. therefore we will not hesitate in this, but take a mean of il. 5s. for N 2 our lOO A IveY to Civil Architecture : Or, our standard-price, and lime we will reckon at per bushel, and sand 4s. per load ; which are about the neat prices. The reason I chuse to mention lime by the bushel, is to give a clearer light into this matter than I should by mentioning it either by the bag or hundred, because every county hath a just knowledge of the bushel, and few of bags and hundreds. But to the point: 4,500 of bricks, at 11. 5s. per 1000, 32 bushels of lime, at 5a. is Labouroftrowel-handat3S.perday,4< Ditto a labourer at 2s. Making the mortar to ditto is £■ s. d. 5 12 6 0 iZ 4 ;,o 12 0 0 8 0 0 3 0 7 8 10 By the above stipulation we find that 7I. 8s. lod. is the neat price which a master pays out of his own pocket, besides the loss of his tools, as, shovels, screens, the wear of cords, poles, puttocks, &c. which are always upon the waste, and boards, his own time, and the laying out of his money; therefore for materials of the above quality a master in justice should have per rod 81 . 10s. But in order to come at a real standard of prices for brickwork in any county, I beg my reader to have recourse to the following table, calculated as universal, allowing the master for lime, sand, and making the mortar, ll. 3s. and for labour 11. 5s. An, The Universal British Builder. 101 An universal Table of Brick-work, allowing ll. g s, Mortar, and 1 1 . 5 j. Labour. Bricks per 1000. Mortar &labor. The price • S. £. s. .£• s. d. At 10 2 8 is 4 13 0 11 Do. 4 17 6 12 Do. 5 2 0 iZ Do. 5 6 6 Do. 5 11 0 *5 Do. 5 15 6 16 Do. 6 0 0 17 Do. 6 4 6 18 Do. 6 9 0 19 Do. 6 6 20 Do. 6 ii 0 21 Do. 7 2 6 22 Do. 7 7 0 2 Z Do. 7 11 6 24 Do. 7 16 0 2 5 Do. 8 0 6 26 Do. 8 5 0 27 Do. 8 9 6 » 28 Do. 8 14 0 29 Do. 8 18 6 30 Do. 9 3 0 The above table I have calculated to serve the country, and ought to be the standard in town, when there are no extraordinary exceptions, as fronts with particular breaks, which are attended with much trouble, &c, If 102 A Key to Civil Architecture: Of, If a master-bricklayer stipulates his work all at one price, as fronts, foundations, and party-walls, one thing will make amends for the loss of another. The price should be what I have mentioned prior to the table ; though masters would grumble at this price; because being only allowed 11. per rod profit, which I think very sufficient; for by this rule, if a master can but employ 12 trowel-men the year round, his business will be a good 5001. per annum, allowing one hundred per ditto for bad debts, and keeping up his scaffolding. Whether this is sufficient or not I leave to the judgment of the world.—But I say, if from such prices (which are considerably less than many masters have) these genteel profits arise, what shall we fay to 10 1 . and 12 1 . per rod, which I have known many bricklayers charge for common brick-work? but the last is exorbitant, and ought to be utterly abolished. There are, indeed, particular jobbs, as warehouses of a particular height that stand close to the Thames, where one labourer is not sufficient to half-serve one bricklayer, and where double the trouble is required to erect the scaffold, &c. In such cases 12I. per rod may not be amiss. I would not willingly infer, or be supposed to insinuate, that the above prices should be lowered; but will take the liberty to say, if a master is allowed 9I. or 101. per roa, he ought to augment his journeymen’s wages ; a thing which ought to be maturely considered in every branch of building. I make no doubt but some people will wonder how I can so easily reconcile this giving as much for labour to a country master as a London one, m a business like a bricklayer, and so easily attained. To the person that makes this objection, I give the following I The Universal British Builder. 103 following answer; that there is a slight in brick-work as well as in every other practice, and that bricklayers in London are obliged to do one third more work than in the country is ever desired: besides, in point of labourers with regard to their prices, which in London are considerably more than the country, and with justice too; for could you have a country labourer in London , you would find he would not be able to half-scrve a bricklayer without a year’s experience. A rod of brick-work in the country is, by men that have not had London practice, 5 j days work, and in some places 6 ; nay, I have even known a bricklayer in the country, and who was esteemed a good workman, to be 8 days over walling a rod, and all this time a labourer to attend him; which, if we rightly consider, will produce the country masters less profits by much, and not have work for half the number of men. To a gentleman that finds his own materials, scaffolding, &c, a master should have from 11. 8s. to ll. 16s. per rod labour; according to the goodness of the work, The standard price by many surveyors is il. 10s. The master’s prices, where no surveyor is concerned, are from il. 16s. toil. 18s. which will allow for men to have 3s. 6d. per day, which ought to be the journeymen’s price, as bricklaying is but an half-year’s business. Of Tiling. As there is nothing in the practice of Tiling beyond what a journeyman might have acquired in the course of his apprenticeship, and as things of more material consequence will shortly come within our description, I beg to be excused faying further of tiling than the quantity : and that the principal judgment 104 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, judgment of it lies in the peculiar pitch of raising the eaves, so that the tiles lay close at the bottom- edge. There is also some little difficulty in laying a valley with plain tiles; but after the practice of one or two, it is easily reconciled. The fame of paving with bricks. Plain tiles to a six inch gauge will take to cover > a square 760, one peck of tile-pins, two bushels of i lime, five bushels of sand, five hundred of nails, | one bundle of laths, and one day’s work of a trowel hand, and labourer at least one. We will allow plain tiles per thousand from 17s. will reckon them at ll. per ditto. to 22s. but s. d. 700 plain tiles are 1 5 0 % bushels of lime, at Ad. 0 10 5 bushels of sand we will call 0 6 400 of nails, at ijd.. Laths, one bundle of oak is. 0 7- & lod. of firr is. 3d. | 1 3 Hair — —> 0 2 A bricklayer one day 3 0 A labourer ditto 2 0 One peck of tile-pins 0 8 £■ 1 4 0 By the above calculation we find the neat price of a square of plain-tiling stands a master in ll. 4s. od. i; therefore to a thing of this gauge we must allow to a master per square ll. gs .—to a seven inch gauge, ll. 6s.—to an eight inch gauge, ll. Zs. Pan-tues The Universal British Builder. 105 n g m- of of er of Is, tV- IW re Pan-tiles are per thousand from 3 1 . to 3I. 10s. 150 of which will cover a square. — Gutter-tiles from its. to 15s. per hundred. —Dutch glazed pan-tiles per hundred from 12s. to 16s.—If we To 150, at ditto — — 100 of nails — ■—■ Lime, hair, and sand, for pointing, Laths to a square —> To tiling and pointing, one day ; trowel-man and labourer, be ll. 4s. * * iJL U11-V- X O IXV-V-U X v i. * for a 6 inch gauge, By surveyors — To a 7 inch ditto, masters, Surveyors — £*• s. d. 0 10 6 0 0 5 0 1 6 0 1 8 i 0 5 0 0 *9 1 mare of pan- ’s price should d. 128 . . £■ s. d. IS, ) \ 1 11 0 1 8 0 1 8 0 1 6 0 Old plain-tiling, ripped and new-laid, from 15s. to 18s. per square. Pan-tiling, with old pan-tiles, 108. or 11s. Of Paving. s. Paving with place-bricks laid flat, and ) without mortar, per yard $ Ditto with mortar -- 1 d. O Note, ioS A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, Note, 32 bricks will pave 1 yard 64, edge-ways, s. d- Paving with white bricks -—• 1 6 New Flanders brick-paving per yard. Note,) . Flanders bricks are ll. is. per thousand, $3 0 9 inch pamment-paving, per yard, 2 6 All rubbed and gauged arches, either of red or grey stocks, the master’s charge per foot superficial, is, from is. 4s. to is. 6d. Note, a good journeyman will rub, gauge, and set in puttey, one day with another, 8 feet; the materials to ditto are worth per foot superficial 4 ^ d. 80 we shall find by this fort of work a master may well afford to advance the wages. Surveyors allow per foot Plain facios per foot rubbed By surveyors sometimes only Master’s charge — Brick cornices per foot superficial Some —> — s. d. 1 4 1 0 o 10 1 2 3 6 5 0 Flaying said so much of bricklayers-work, I shall mention two or three necessary things to journeymen, and proceed with my next lecture ; which is, first, that he will have a respect to the building in general; and not be backward in assisting with the bond-timbers, lintels, wood-bricks, discharging- pieces, tassels, &c. and put all in their proper places, which he should be as well apprized of as the carpenter, both as to consequence and place. The first place of bond-timber, in every story, is lor the skirting or bafe-moulding to be fixed to; the next for the fur-bafe. This is of use as to strength. In the next place there should always be J a chain The Universal British Builder. 107 a chain of bond-timber between the floor or story - plate, and the sur-base ; and run quite through the windows, &c. well bound in the angles; and not cut off in the windows, till the house is covered in; besides in the windows it will be of use to scaffold upon. Secondly, that the bricklayers omit not to try if their work is level every four or five courses ; a matter of great consequence, as well for the strength of the fabric, as the benefit of the carpenters, in laying on their plates for the floors ; that inside walls be as ffreight as those without; chimnies, quoins, and breasts, perpendicular: that you be particularly careful in setting sash-frames, if they stand in the wall, both as to regular margins from the outward part of the wall, as well as exactly perpendicular: for on this last article depends all the beauty of the inside work ; every thing being fixed from, and guided by the sash-frame : for the least defect in this, often causes shutters to be framed of different widths, as well as obliges the carpenters to make unnecessary stirrings. And, lastly, of the beauty of walling ; which depends on a regularity of bond, an exact point, and cleanliness of execution ; with regard to a regular bond, I mean the exact uniformity that one course bears to another : that the heading-joints, both of header and stretcher, may appear ffreight one above another, from the top to the bottom ; thus regularly broke every other course : that joints be of a regular thickness all the way up, and not bigger than | of an inch : that fronts under windows do not in thickness exceed the inside of the sash-frame, to prevent the carpenters from shaking the whole front with cutting away for their dado : that you O 2 be 108 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, be also careful to tie the angles of the building, for they are the pillars and strength of the whole. LECTURE XVII. Of the Practice of Plaisterers-work. T HE branch of plaistering is practically considered under two heads, relative to the distinction of workmen ; as, ornament, and what are called cornice hands ; both having an extensive field for cultivation. To the former of these ingenious departments is referred the study of all nature, to the latter the exact symmetry and beauty of architecture. The principal thing in the practice of common plaistering, is a thorough knowledge of the quality of materials ; and how far they are subject to the inclemency of weather; because on this particular depends the composition of the stuff; and how to apply a certain quantity or gauge of plaister, to a quantity of lime and sand, that may answer in all seasons of the year. Those who would desire to have their work appear found and firm, will pay a respect to this particular; for it is certain, that in winter, or very damp weather, stuff will require a double gauge of plaister, more than the exact quantity that is necessary to be applied in all common stuff for cornices, ceilings, &c. which is the ground of all works of this fort; and if any wife defective, will be too powerful for the setting or finishing of puttey, that is applied over the whole ; and should appear without crack or blister. Plaister is ol a very astringent quality ; that of it which is good, is an immediate cement, like terras. But though work be forced by an augmented quality The Universal British Builder. 109 quality in unseasonable weather, for my own part, I would prefer a good season for natural drying unto any thing confined by artificial means; and would consider one bag of plaister in May to ten in January or February, for either cornices or boding of ornaments. The way and time to mix plaifier with stuff, is to do it at the time you lay it on ; in which cafe it will have all its strength. Plaisterers themselves know well enough the use and mode of mixing their stuff; but as I propose my book as an universal benefit, I beg to mention two or three things relative to the quality and quantity of materials, that may be serviceable to many workmen, that do plail- terers work in the country ; which is even beneath the notice of an established plaisterer. The mode of appropriating stuff for the first coat of ceilings, is, to take one quantity of lime to three of sand. Note, the best sand for ceilings, walls, &c. is red pit-sand ; which is of a rough conjunctive quality, and the least subject to crack of any. For stucco, or what is called finishing, mix one of lime, and another of sand : the best for stucco is ri- ver-fand; being much sharper, and sets, as is required, much harder ; for in all work of this kind it is expected to appear as smooth and firm as stone. For cornices, the certain quantity should be one gauge of plaister, and four of lime ; and sand, three to one of the whole ; the lime, sand, and hair first made ; the plaister to be applied just before it is laid on ; the same for boilings of ceilings, &c. Plaistering is a most useful invention, and has greatly the preference of wood, for cornices, &c. on account of its unity with walls and ceilings ; but we fee it often lose its effect, when mixed with wood, as in base mouldings, &c. 1 he intent of appropriating cast- mouldings of plaister, no A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, plaister, with wood, is to load a room with a profu- ( lion of ornaments, and at a little more expence than ( if done with wood plain : but things of this kind will not bear examining : and, for my own part, I think every ingenious man would rather approve of half the quantity of ornaments well executed in wood, suitable, and of the same piece with the rest. 1 —Belexion mouldings, well executed in plaister, 1 have a noble effect in halls, stair-cafes, &c. and are ! much preferable to any thing of the fame value, that can be invented. These, with some well disposed ornaments, &c. in them, would, in my opinion, be the greatest beauty of the present mode of finishing many capital rooms. To the immortal credit of the present age, it may be affirmed, that this branch of business is in its full meridian of beauty, both with respect to symmetry and composition; and it may justly be said, that the ancients were in no wife compatible with the present taste for ornaments ; in which cafe Messrs. Adams deserve particular honour ; being themselves the originals of many capital designs, that almost beggar description : from the spring of which the whole mass of surveyors, and petty mixturers, have found matter to supply their want of genius and invention. It is greatly to be lamented, that these'great men should mistake their path in some respects relative to the propriety of their cornices; which greatly lose their force for want of a little more projection: that symmetry, and happy arrangement, which we frequently -lose by the distance, would be quite perspicuous, • were but a little more added to the above particular. I almost wonder that such great judges of beauty, never found the ill effects of this observation; but whether or not, it is beyond a doubt The Universal British Builder. 111 doubt, their works in general are the most capital of the age. Of the Value os Ornaments. The value of ornament-plaistering cannot well be ascertained without a sight of the drawings; or rather the ceilings, &c. when finished. However, as far as may be serviceable to the learner in estimating ajobb, I will endeavour to define. And, first, my readers will observe, that all ornaments on ceilings are valued by the foot; and it may not be amiss to observe, that if the ceiling is lightly enriched with foliage of small relief, intermixed with mouldings of various figures, it may be valued all together by the foot superficial; the dimensions taken from the outward square of all, at Zs. per foot. But this is an uncertain way, and cannot be used by any but those that are judges at sight. The only real method is to value all the different works separate, as before observed in the measurement; and are, or may be done at the following prices : Plain mouldings in cielings, at per ft. run o Inferior enriched mouldings to ditto, cast, o Superior enriched, cast, Ditto run upon the deling, with various enrichments, from yd. to Foliage, at per foot superficial, from 2S. to o Large pieces of ornament in the middle of a ceiling, at per foot superficial, Trophies, cafes of arrows, &c. per foot superficial - Figures,deities,Ac. per piece, from il.to 20 Gollocci £■ S . d . 10 O 2 -0 O 3 0 O 4 0 1 2 D O 3 6 O 4 0 O 5 0 20 0 0 112 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Gollocci and frets, at per foot fuperfi- £. s. d. cial, 6 inches wide, 020 Ribbons and roses, superficial, at 016 Large ornaments of festoons and flowers 039 Small frets, at per foot run, from 6d. to o 1 0 My reader must be content, in ornament ceilings, to know the real value of the works I have mentioned, as it would be of little validity to prove assertions that he does not fee, or may be unacquainted with ; therefore to make it advantageous to him, it will be highly requisite to study this matter farther himself. Of the Value of Plaifler-cornices. In the value of Plaister-cornices it may not be amiss, first, to enquire into the quantity of materials, for a better proof of what I propose to advance relative to the price allowed by surveyors, and what is also charged by masters. And, first, of full enriched Corinthian cornices, which consist of various ornaments, carvings, &c. and should be made all of the best plaister, which is little less than one penny per pound. The nearest general calculation that can be made of plain cornices, on account of their number of variations, is, To every foot of plain cornice the materials, making, &c. stands the master in qd.— To a full enriched cornice, modillions, &c. is.— The labour to a foot of Corinthian cornice, as 1 have made the following calculations from whole rooms, the labourer’s time, laths, nails, stuff, lime, and plaiistereris time, to be as follows: The Universal British Builder. 113 s. d. To labour -- o 9 Stuff - - -- 1 o Therefore it cannot be amiss to allow the intrinsic value per foot superficial 2 o Some surveyors are pleased to allow 1 6 Others vouchsafe to give 2 2 Some I have known generous enough to offer a good plaisterer per foot superficial 1 2 Some of the capital masters in town, for fully enriched cornices of the Corinthian or Composite order, from 2s. 8d. to Z 0 Ionic cornices, fully enriched, are worth 1 9 All plain cornices are worth to a master, per foot superficial, to find scaffolding, 1 2 Though they are done so low as 08 Doric frieses, with ox-heads and proper enrichments, at per foot superficial, 4 6 Cornices to ditto, with mutules and bells, 1 9 Surveyors 4 s. and 1 10 Enriched frieses, from 1 s. per foot, to 5 o Cast frieses, with foliage of 4 inches, measured in the cornices, at is. 6d. per foot, 1 6 Belexion mouldings enriched, at per ft. run o 4 Corinthian and Composite capitals, per foot superficial, — ■— 5 0 Chimney-pieces, at per foot superficial, 2 o Ionic capitols in plaister, per foot supers. 4 6 Surveyors allow, in some cases, 5 o Terms to chimney-pieces, per foot supers. 2 6 Frieses to ditto enriched 3 6 P Of ii4 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Of Plain-ceilings, Walls, Stucco, &c. The quantity of materials to either ceilings or walls ever varies, because it depends in a great measure on the conduct of the carpenters, bricklayers, &c. The following is the nearest general calculation for every three-coat ceiling, or lathed walls : We must allow ^d. for materials, as laths, nails, lime, plaister, sand, &c. — for labour, if a master finds scaffolding, 6d. s. d. more, which brings the intrinsic value, per yard —- ■—• o 10 Therefore every ceiling well floated, Scc. is worth —■ 12 Masters charge the above price. Surveyors from qd. to — 12 Inside-worst upon laths, as walls, Scc. l o Walls floated for paper, Scc. o 8 Stucco, per yard, well finished on laths l 9 The materials to a yard of stucco, is worth, upon laths, — o 10 Walls floated and finished with stucco 1 6 The materials are worth per yard o ft Note, masters charge for finishing upon laths — — 2 2 Upon walls >— — 1 10 Surveyors allow from is. 2d. upon laths, to 2 0 Upon walls, from is. to — 17 £, s. d. Grey plaister floors are worth per square, if 2 inches and an half thick, 2 14 0 Surveyors allow from 2I. 2s. to 2 10 0 Red ditto are worth per square 3 8 0 Surveyors allow from 2I. 18s. to 3 5 0 The The Universal British Buildef. 11 ; The learner must observe, in laying of plaister- floors to put a margin of wood round the room, which must be taken up as soon as it is set, to give room for swelling ; for if plaister of such a thickness be laid and confined, it will rife in blisters before it is half dry, and render it totally useless. Plaister-framing, as ovlo and flat, per foot Ditto circular soffits, measure and half Framed and raised pannel in plaister Forwhite-wafhing with whiting, size, work,) and materials, per yard ) Ditto whiting of new work, per ditto s. o d. 6 o 9 O 2 o i; LECTURE XVIII. Of Painters Work. H Ouse-painting is a branch so common that it needs no comment; therefore I shall not take up my reader’s time beyond what is necessary, to enquire into its value. And, first, of the colours of paint that is, or in some cases may be used in a building; which are as follow: Wainscot colour, Stone ditto, Lead, Pearl, White, Dead white, or flatting, Orange, Chocolate, Lemon, Mahogany, Pink, P 2 Cedar, W alnut-tree, Pea, Fine sky-blue, Mixed with Prussian blue, Blossom, n6 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, Blossom colour, Brown, Fine deep green, Yellow. Black, The above are all the colours that can be requisite for painting either houses or shops, &c.— These colours differ something both with respect to price and quality ; therefore must have a stipulation according to their value and quantity, in point of execution ; as it is certain some colours will paint considerably more than others, which I shall endeavour to shew. Firji, of the price os colours. First primer ground in oil is fold at per hundred Or per pound Second primer at ditto £• — i - o - 1 Best white-lead ground in oil, at per Ib. o Pearl, lead, cream, stone, wainscot, at per pound o Chocolate, mahogany, cedar, walnut- tree, ground in oil, at per pound o Sky-blue, orange, lemon, pink, blossom, straw, Prussian blue, from 8d. to o Fine deep green, per pound o Black, brown, yellow, per ditto o s. d. 16 o o 4 16 o o 4 o 41 o .6 1 o 2 6 O 4 My reader must observe, that all house-painting must at least be done three times over, sometimes four ; the cause of which I shall mention hereafter. Of The Universal British Builder. 117 Of the quantity that one pound os paint do over. wm Sq. yds. 18 10 8 Z6 o 12 First primer ground in, or made thin with oil, will paint, properly mixed, 18 square yards — Second primer mustbe mixed stronger, one pound, mixed with oil, will paint 10 square yards — The best white-lead, ground in oil, and properly mixed for the finishing, will paint 8 yards — So if we add the three quantities together, and divide by 3, we shall find that one pound of paint will prime and finish, properly mixed, 12 square yards, as in the margin. Therefore, we have _ only the oil for mixing, and the puttey, to add ; and we shall find the real value to a yard of painting; which once got, we shall proceed to the labour, to solve the whole. Supposing to one pound of paint to be appro printed for painting to its extent, at three separate times ; for first primer, second ditto, and finishing, we allow three half-pints of oil, which is more than necessary, and one pound of puttey for stopping, &c. and add them to the value of the paint, for 12 yards, and we shall easily come at the value of materials. s. d. 04 o 4 o 9 To one pound of paint - One pound of puttey -- Z half-pints of oil, at per quart 1 s. Ii8 AKEYto Civil Architecture : Or, The above added, as in the margin, we find the materials for 12 square yards is is. Zd. which is something less than id. \ per yard. And next of the labour to a yard of painting. The nearest calculation of the labour to a yard of painting, is as follows: — A man that will work any thing smart will do Yards. First primer per day 70 yards 70 Second ditto, and stop with puttey, 30 And finish about — 40 Therefore if we add the three num- --—- bers together, and divide by 3, as 3 ) 140 1 46 before, we shall have the exact quan- 12 tity that a man will begin and finish -- in one day, which in the margin 20 is 46. 18 2 A journeyman’s wages in this business is 3 s. per day: so if we divide 46 yards by 36 pence, (the journeyman’s wages) we shall find, that a master has every yard of painting, 3 times over, done for less than a penny; to which if we add three-half- pence materials, the intrinsic value of a yard of painting is 2d. for which masters charge from od. to 8d. per ditto. I am far from insinuating, that any master should lower the customary prices ; but yet cannot help observing, that I think it a great error in surveyors to allow a business like a painter such extravagant profits that neither requires thought or speculation, and joiners in many respects not sufficient to pay their men half adequate to their merit. Surveyors The Universal British Builder. 119 Surveyors allow for out or inside-work, 3 times in oil, per yard from 6d. to yd. The profit of every yard, allowing for difficult jobbs, is 3d. A man with a continuance, painting 40 yards per day, or supposing 30, or even 20, a mailer must clear by every journeyman, at such prices, 5s. per day. Many masters employ 20 men ; the profits arising from which are obvious to every one. s. d. The real price of painting 3 times in oil ? should be ) 4 2 When clear-coated o 5 \ Flatting with turpentine o 6 $ Flatting with nut-oil o y z Some of my readers may not know what either clear-coaling or flatting is, therefore I shall endeavour to inform them, as well as of their use. Clear-coaling is a body of colour ground in, or mixed with size, and done after second primer, in order to give a strength to the colours, and make them stand the semblance they are intended. But I cannot recommend it; for damp weather will affect it; and if the colour intended is white, or any thing light, it will always turn yellow. This composition, or what is called clear-coal, is a great enemy to joiners; for let them finish their wojk ever so clean, if the men are not very careful, clear-coaling spoils it all, especially the mitres, &c. Flatting is done with a mixture of oil of turpentine, or nut-oil. Its intent is to secure the colour, and is used for finishing; and when done, leaves the paint quite dead, without gloss. It is of great consequence to those who like to have their rooms continue white, as nothing else can be appropriated to stand the weather. All 120 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, All common colours are done at the above prices, and allowed as such by surveyors : blues, greens, blossom, pink, orange, straw, olive, pea-colour, should be per yard 1 s. and are allowed as such by surveyors. There is nothing like this difference in the quality of materials or labour, to augment the prices 6 d. per yard; but when those colours are used, it is generally for little abstracted jobbs, which should be paid for according to the time and trouble. at s. l 1 o o Sash-frames are allowed, per piece Might be done for Sashes allowed per square Window lights from 2d. to Inside-painting, twice upon old work, per yd.o Modillion-cornices, per foot run, from qd. to o Plain outfide-cornices, per foot run, Frontispieces, per foot superficial, Chimney-pieces, per foot superficial, Hand-rail, banisters, strings, newels, per yard, Hand-rails alone per foot run, Horse plain cornices, per foot run, All torus skirting in halls, garrets, &c. per foot run, Skirting up stairs, per foot run, o o o d. 4 o i{ 5 4 9 3 2 2 &C. O 10 o o 0 lj O 2 lecture The Universal British Builder. 121 LECTURE XIX. Of Glaziers W ork. G Lazing is a branch of the least difficulty of any in a building, therefore is judiciously enough joined to a painter, because neither require th,e executive part of men of merit. The value of glaziers work as follows ; s . d . Crown-glass measured neat for fashes, according to the size of the squares, per foot superficial, o 111 Sashes glazed with London crown glass, puttied on both sides, as is requisite, per foot superficial l 2 j Sashes, glazed with Bristol crown glass, 1 ij Ditto, with Newcastle glass, o io| Ditto, waved or jealous glass, per foo t superficial, 2 Z Ditto, plate glass, according to their size, from i foot to 2 foot panes from 5 s. to 6 o Ditto from 2 to 3 and 4 foot panes superficial, are from 6s. per foot to 80 Glazing with Crown glass, squares in lead- work, per foot, 11 o Ditto the materials to a foot of this work, is worth 8 o Taking down leaded windows, showering, foddering, banding, and putting in a- gain, per foot superficial, 3 o Note, 231b. of window-lead is sufficient for 100 feet superficial, when worked. -- Note also, that lights and circular fashes must be valued as square, O on 122 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, on account of the trouble ; and to glaziers, in some cases, measure and half. LECTURE XX. Of Slaters Work. S Eaters work differs but little in practice (save the preparation of the states) from tiling ; its greatest beauty is in the regular appropriating the different gauges; so that they appear in bond, and arrangement equally streight. There is some difficulty in fitting a valley ; but the great principle is the exact form of setting the first course, or raising it behind, not to excess, but to a certain pitch, that all the succeeding ones shall appear close, and not be defective in respect to the inner parts for pointing. There are many forts of state in use, viz. what is called Can-quarry,Tavistock scantle, and Westmoreland ditto, and some others, though not frequently used. The latter is much the best, being much larger, but should not be appropriated but for very large buildings; or at least, such as are of sufficient strength for their weight. The price of doing these per square is, f. s, from 2I. 13 s. to 30 Tavistock scantle are something less ; and rather inferior in quality; and are according as they are in goodness done from 2I. to Camquarry are the worst, and mostly used, the price from ll. 1 6s. to Ditto for temples, and scheme roofs, Ditto, states, pew ripped and laid, There is amongst the new buildings a worse state than 2 10 2 2 1 8 12 The Universal British Builder. 123 than any of those mentioned, called Welsh slate, done per square from il. 8s. to il. 13s. LECTURE XXI. Of Carvers Work. T HIS beautiful and ingenious branch is subject to the same effect as ornament-plaister, with respect to its value: no settled or stipulated price can be fixed on a matter of such mutable compositions, that constantly vary with every fresh design. >—However, I shall give some few hints to the learner: and, first, with respect to carving on mouldings for all forts of framing : Ovolo to deal-framing, carved with eggs s. d. and tongues, per foot running measure, o 4 Ditto on mahogany or wainscot, o 6 O-gee framing in deal, carved with seven- leaved grafs, o 4 On mahogany and wainscot, o 6 Small o-gee to framing on deal, three-leav- ed grass o 2 \ Large ovolos to doors, with ribbons and roses, or eggs and darts, per foot run, o 8 Large quirked o-gees, with various carvings, o 7 Small astragal mouldings to doors, per foot lineal, o 3 Small fluting to facios, per foot lineal, o 5 2 inches long o 6 Friefes, fluting, 6 inches wide and upwards, at per foot superficial, 1 6 Fluting the raisings upon the pannels of mahogany doors, per foot rum o 8 Q 2 Carving 124 A Key to Civil Architecture, Scc. s. d. Carving Corinthian capitols, per foot supers. 9 0 Ionic ditto, 6 0 Composite ditto, 9 0 Ornaments in alto-relievo, to freifes well executed, from 5 s. per foot supers, to 10 6 Ornaments to friefe-s in basso-relievo, from Zs. per foot superficial to 7 6 Festoons, per foot supers, from 4s. to 80 Figures are all valued at per piece. As Carvers find no materials, and have no advantages but what result from their labour, I (hall not pretend to say any thing with respect to the time of execution ; since it is a business, well known to be upon as eligible a footing, with respect to profits, as any in the building branch. The above prices are such as are allowed by many surveyors. THE PRACTICE O F JOINER S-W O R K. jiniiaijsj ilu Mr. THOMAS HARDISTY, Carpenter and Joiner, in York. 5 / R, T TARING no other inducement but gratitude, nor any motive but J-J- a willing heart, I humbly beg your acceptance of thefollowing mark, as a compensation for the sole produce of my labours; as I am not beyond acknowledging, that whatever progress I have made in the liberalsciences, as well as my own bus ness, was chifly through your kind incitements to the former, and well-grounded instrudions in the latter. With refped to the plan of my work, I submit to your candour, well knowing, from a thorough convidion of your goodness, that you will not condemn where there is the leaf room for applause. Many who have seen and much approved the peculiar efforts of my studies, have, notwithstanding, alledged reasons agairff a work of this fort without lines.—I must confess, that in many, f not mof of the f radical effays, I could have been much clearer, by alluding to lines; and, moreover, given a greater variety of methods and observations', and mufi allow, that my firs plan was with this intent: but, conff dering the vast expence the book would amount to, and the number of treatises of lines already extant, I contraded my scheme, and reduced it to the present state \ well knowing that every journeyman (for whose benefit this work is intended) had rather be infruded in the modes and peculiar manners of doing a difficult piece of work, than have the pleasure of ccfiing his eye upon a fine plate, that only represents such works when done. As no fettledstandard can be made refptding the surveyors, prices, end masters, or their mode of measuring, being all in some cafes dff- DEDICATION. Jet mt ; I hope you will give san&ion to my proposals, which contain a medium of many, and the direEl rules of some. If I meet with the approbation of the world, and an encouragement from your judgment, I may, hereafter, offer to the public aJyjlemoj matters {in store ) never yet confidered by any ; and{ in my own opinion, of the mofl essential utility both to the architeS, builder, gentleman, and private workman.—In many of the topics I shall better my underfanding by your opinion, as it is well known, that your pra&ical methods are at least equal, if not superior to any of the present age. Whatever the public may think of me, as one they call an author, 1 know not. Of this I am certain, that Ifiall not want your belief, when I assure you, that this dedication is the result of a profowd acknowledgment, an artless inclination, proudly glad and grateful It have it m my power to offer my trifle to the acceptance off a mm, whom I know to be meritorious without example ; honssil without pretence ; and, what is more , never withdrew his hand from the pressing exigence of his friends. I am, Sir, with the most profound rejped, Your mofl obedient and mqfl humble servant, and very fried, THO. SKAIFE. THE THE m PRACTICE O F JOIN'ERS-WORK, LECTURE XXII. Of the Construction o/Dado. D ADO is the die or intire part of an order, which is between the base and cornice of the pedestal; and by architects is attributed to that plain part of a room between the base and fur-bafe mouldings. This fort of work, in large rooms, should never be made of thinner stuff than what is called whole-deal. The chief thing to be considered in the practice of dado is, the manner of putting up, which requires some thought, in order to secure it from casting; the method of keying only being found insufficient, without a proper manner of placing of them. There are a great many ways of doing this : but the best, in my opinion, is as follows, viz. when you key your dado, leave the keys long enough at the broad end to reach the joists, or floor; and put the broad-ends of the keys downwards, for this reason; there is a proclivity, or tending downwards in all work, which can never be detrimental to dado thus done ; because if the key goes to the floor, there it R stops: !ZO A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, stops ; and if it should shrink, the proclivity of the dado will ever keep the work streight. If the broad ends were upwards, the dado might drop from the keys, and render them of no use. In putting dado round windows, mind to keep up the front of the elbow a little, that after the mouldings are on, and capped, the shutters may open easy. Dado in all angles must be groved, and well nailed; observe also, that no nails be put in the bottom-edge of dado; let it receive no fastening but what it has from the keys ; if it is confined both at the top and bottom, it is sure to break. Observe, of dado for circular rooms, that you do not imbibe the wretched methods of contrast- mongers and talk-masters, of gluing your dado up and down ; the genuine method of gluing circular dado, is to make a saddle to the sweep of your wall; if it is a large sweep you may make a fineer half an inch thick, and bind it upon the cilinder or saddle; after glue backings to the sweep behind: leave it a few days to dry, and strike your work for putting up. With regard to long lengths of dado, be careful in breaking the heading-joints, and, not like the task-masters, make a heading-joint quite through. As to the height of dado, the window is the guide ; leaving the fame margin when the capping is on, as there is from the mutter to the bead; when there are backs and elbows, the dado may be put up at pleasure, or to the fancy of the builder. Some architects propose a fifth part of the height of the room ; but this would not suit very low rooms; nor yet very high ones. I think dado should never be higher than 3 feet 9 inches, nor lower than 2 feet 6 inches. If rooms were all about twelve foot high, a fifth part would do very well; and so on to a room The Universal British Builder. 131 os 15 feet high; what runs above this pitch, for every 6 inches in the room’s heights, I would add one inch more to the height of the dado. If there are columns or pilasters, the dado should in every refpe£t be subservient to the pedestal of the order. s » d* The price of this work, charged by masters, is, per yard, with materials, from 4s. 6d. to 5 6 Surveyors allow for dado of whole-deal, per yard, 4 6 Inch and half ditto 5 o Of inch ditto, per yard 4 o The real value of dado as follows: The stuff to dado, allowing waste, should be to a master per foot 2d. j; nine feet of which is, 1 Glue and nails to ditto, and keys, per yard o Labour to ditto, per yard o o Some people will wonder how I can fix lod. per yard for labour; those that do, I beg them to understand, that this is the neat price a master pays out of his pocket for such work, proved by the following example: A journeyman of 17s. or 18s. peir week will glue up six twelve-feet lengths per day, plain them the second, and put them up the third, with casual breaks, &c. Therefore we find that 2 lengths is one day’s work to begin and finish; which two lengths when put up, may be 6 yards; and which, allowing the master for his man 3s. per day, is but 6d. R 2 and ZZ2 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, and 4d. more per yard I-allow for keying ditto, which is lod. Therefore the universal price of dado of inch s. d. and half deal, is, ^ ^ o Whole-deal should be per yard 4 6 Os inch ditto 42 Circular dado double measure, and paid for the saddle or cilinder extra, which it is glued upon. L E C T U R E XXIII. ^Mouldings in general. T HE guide and master-piece of all architecture depends, and that solely, on the magnitude and composition of mouldings ; they are the sum- mum bonum, or leading touches of art, which give force and beauty to whatever is intended; every thing, of whatever fort or nature, takes its semblance, or changes its effect, from the power that is contained in these governing principles: how cautious, therefore, should every artist be in the designing or composing of mouldings, since on those alone depends that splendid ease, required to attract the beholders eye, and enliven the form of imitative nature. * The great and most sensible difference between ancient and modern architecture, is wholly comprised in the composition of mouldings. Notwithstanding so great and distinguishing an article to the beauty of all work, as mouldings are, we daily fee such productions of this fort, that one would almost be persuaded to think that there was no cause for them but custom, nor any properties belonging but the form, wjtich might be extended or contracted as ideas or fancy might guide the pen The Universal British Builder. 133 os the artist; and, I believe, there are many who consider themselves as adepts in architecture, who vary but little from the above observation. Those gentlemen who satisfy themselves with opinions of this fort, are as far from the comprehension of symmetry, and real effects, as the difference between right and wrong. ■ I own, there is a thirst for variety peculiar to the English nation, that must be satisfied, or the works of art' (like the continued form of a worn-out fashion) would quickly decline, and be disgustful: therefore it is highly necessary to strive at invention, to gratify the mutable taste of such a people. But even this should be done within the rule of propriety : for e recesses in any art are obnoxious. The invention of many yew members of mouldings were well concerted and introduced, by the original authors of them ; but they are now prostituted to such a pitch of extravagance, that I almost wonder the inventors do not leave this by-road, (which they first ventured upon, and made familiar and smooth, to their lasting praise,) and find out some other similar path, where they may move on, for a time, without let or molestation. The field of nature will never be exhausted, nor propriety lose its power of guidance ; therefore, whatsoever bears a semblance of the former, within the circumscription of the latter, is consistent with symmetry, and hath the advantage of sound reason to fortify the invention. Any thing estranged from the above observation, deviates from the real sense of all mouldings; which are .'intended to give force and elegance to all works, wheresoever applied. The present taste of. mouldings (as introduced by numbers) differs much from this; for, instead of giving force and beauty, they in many cafes diminish 134 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, minish the natural grandeur, for want of proper dimensions. Any moulding, of whatever fort or nature, above the eye, should have a projection, that the whole effect of the different members may be plainly discovered; else they serve to no purpose. It will be of little use to load a cornice with beads, and other similar quirked mouldings, if they lose their effect by the distance. I must, nevertheless, allow, that mouldings designed in the above manner in many cafes are pleasing, but must be judiciously appropriated ; for the learner must understand, that instead of less, those mouldings require more projection than others ; for it is not how those things will or do appear close to the eye, but we must consider the distance at which they must of course be viewed ; the altitude, and natural point of sight. If these things were maturely, considered, I believe we should find, that cornices of all forts should not consist of one of the above particulars: — architraves to doors, windows, &c. as well as base and sur-base mouldings, doors, window-fhutters, be- lexion and other mouldings close to the eye, may have these introductions : — cornices to rooms of all forts should be free; yet, if they must be subjected in other respects to the taste of the times, the learner must observe, never to exceed the following bounds : To make the cornice less than the one 24th part of the height of the room, nor project less than two-thirds of its height: and if the mouldings laid down by some eminent architects are not sufficient for his taste, I must leave him in other respects to his own fancy; with this point in view, not to out-stretch the modesty of the above proportions. The Universal British Builder. 135 Of the praElice os mouldings . The working, or rather the taking-off mouldings from drawings, is a matter of some consequence to learners; therefore I shall not spare to be as plain and particular as possible, to render this familiar to the weakest capacity : but must observe to the student, if he is a stranger to this matter, it will be requisite to proceed step by step by the following example, (as descriptions in writing are sometimes troublesome to remember) and then in this, as well as all other points of practice, he will be assured of success. Example of taking-off a moulding. Before you begin, draw a line close to the face of the moulding, (not interfering with any of the fillets) next from this face-line draw a line square at the extreme top and bottom of the moulding, which will give the width of your stuff to be plained up ; from the face-line draw a line parallel, for the thickness of the stuff; next continue all the lines of the drawing into this first face-line ; and also at the projection of each annulet, or fillet, let fall perpendiculars into the face-line too, which will Ihew the wood to be taken out for working your squares; the fame for springing both at top and bottom. Having done this, strike a line across your piece of wood, and with your dividers begin either at the top or bottom of the drawing, and take oft these several marks of intersection, and prick them upon the piece of stuff for the moulding; likewise the springing both at top and bottom; then set your gauges to these several pricks, and run them 13 6 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, all along the piece ; then proceed to work it; first taking off the springing, and set it upon the same position for working, it must be in when put up, by which means you will fink all your squares level, If there is an o-gee in the drawing, observe with your dividers to draw the curve of the hollow into the face-line, the same as the fillets, which will be your place for pricking off upon your stuff, and the extent of the hollow; which, if your round is well fitted, and worked exactly to tnis line, your kindred hollow, will work the round to an intersection of the greatest nicety. There is no other moulding, save this, that requires any observation in the taking or pricking off. O-gees and faint hollows are the only difficult mouldings; with respect to the latter, whenever they occur, it is always upon a plain Face, as architraves, &c. in which cafe, you must always leave a fillet at the bottom of the hollow, and rabbit the architrave, or other plain, where it is to be applied, because it would be impossible to work a moulding of this fort to an edge with any accuracy. Os the value of mouldings. Masters charge for all streight mouldings, as base and fur-bafe, plain cornices, &c. with materials, per foot superficial, from is. 2d. to — ■— Surveyors allow in general Dentel cornices by masters Surveyors — ■— Block or modillion cornices, per foot, masters — —> Surveyors in many places s. I i 6 1 2 i 8 i 5 i 8 i 4 Blocks The Universal British Builder. 137 Blocks and modillions at per piece, ac- s. d. cording to their size, from 1 jd. to o 6 Small block cornices are valued all together, at — —7 1 9 Doric intablatures all together ;> with intitules, trighlhs, &c. at per foot superficial, masters —■ —- 2 6 Surveyors, from 2s. ed. to 24 But these are usually valued singly, the cornice at is. ed. the trigliffs and mutules at per piece, which answers the fame purport. Architraves, at per foot superficial, by masters — — 10 Surveyors, from 8d. to 10 To every superficial foot of moulding may be reckoned, in a general cafe, \ of a foot of stuff. In some cafes it will require more, and others less, which, of good whole deal, as none s. d. else should be used for mouldings, we will call - o 3 Brads, glue, Scc. — o 1 4 The whole materials to a foot fuperfi- - cial, is — 044 The labour to all mouldings worked by hand, (as the others are not worth notice) s. d. stands a master in near 4 d. per foot, which makes the labour and materials per foot o 8 4 Therefore the universal price of all streight mouldings should be per foot superficial — — 10 To prove the labour, 4 lengths of 10 or 12 feet, S two- 138 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, two-membered mouldings, is one day’s work, which may girt about three inches each, make twelve feet in the whole, which, at 3d. per foot, is 4s. above a journeyman’s wages. Circular mouldings are very badly regulated, having no more than double measure, which is in every case too little, both for materials and labour. The real value of circular work should be at lead trebled; and, in many cafes, double measure, and double price. Architraves, double-faced, to masters should be the same as mouldings, as both stuff and labour have the same proportions. Single-faced architraves are made of thinner stuff, with a moulding glued upon them ; the materials are not worth more than 2(1. per foot; the labour to ditto, 2d. more; there- s. d. fore the real value should be to masters, per foot, >— — 06; Many masters charge for this work o 8 Surveyors allow from 3 d. to 08 LECTURE XXIV. Of Doors. T HE nature of a door is too obvious to neecU comment; therefore I shall immediately proceed to relate what is necessary to be observed in the practice of them. Most kind of doors should be put into the bands of the best workmen, for they are a part of the branch, which requires great execution ; being always in use, should be made particularly sound, and firm, and well handled, because they are ever opposed . The Universal British Builder. 139 opposed to the eye; the great principle or chief merit lies in the ploughing, and (ticking the moulding upon the frame ; for without masterly performance in these two points, all your care in plaining up your stuff, mortising, tenanting, &c. will be of little use; because in those two parts lie the great efforts to a well-executed dpor. There are different ways of putting a door together, but the best and surest is done after the following example. When you have plained up your stuff, mortised the stiles and rails all the width, proceed to ploughing and sticking, and cut out what is called the staunching after ; the method adopted by numbers, of staunching the stiles and rails before you dough or stick them, is a latent notion, invented iy some who were fonder of studied maxims, than well-approved methods ; if the principal effort to a clean door, lay in the mortise, and tenant, the maxim would be good ; but as it depends solely upon the parts before mentioned, it is obvious, that our particular care should turn to these principles ; which cannot so well be done to a certainty with the staunching cut out first ; besides the inconvenience of spoiling the plain, by knocking the end a- gainst the notches.—There are others who pretend to be more sure and wife than the last mentioned, that put their work together square, and plain it off on both sides; then proceed to plough and stick, &c. but those are more intolerable than the other ; having not one argument to support it: for if the duff is reduced irregularly, (which must be the cafe so done) the moulcling must consequently be so on one side, and palpably void of both truth and beauty. There is another observation in scribing, that may not be amiss to mention, which is the common S 2 error 140 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, error that many young men daily commit for want' of thought; that is, the attempt of scribing a square or the level fillet of an ovolo on doors, or other framing of this kind : those that have this method, I beg of them to abolish it, and consider the incon- sistency of mitring two level pieces of equal thickness, and to lap one upon another with a scribe. As all framing is founded upon these principles, I think it unnecessary to fay more of the practice of common-work; though it may be requisite to fay some little of bead and flush ; after which I shall proceed to the value of doors, with some remarks of mahogany and wainscot ditto. A bead is a moulding which cannot be'otherwise framed than by a mitre : therefore hath a limit or certain extention, for every rail or muntin; and not like work that is scribed together, which maybe moved to any length within the circumscription of the eye. The best method of framing bead and flush for learners, is, to mitre his work square, and in this state put in the pannels, and after smooth all off together then take it apart, and stick the bead; if the pannels are marked, and put to their places, and the bead well stuck, he will be assured of making clean work. Of Mahogany doors. Mahogany and wainscot doors differ from common framing of deal, by reason of the nicety of the mortises and tenons ; which require great care, by reason that no pins are used in these forts of work, which should be made as smooth as if the whole was executed by a plain. The manner of putting together is the fame as other framing in every respect The Universal British Builder. ‘ 141 else; except the double margin in the middle, which mult always go through the top and bottom rail; also the top and bottom rail be continued, and instead of being mortised, that part where the mortise should be, must be left as a tenant; and the double-margined stile mortised in this place, and slipped on, both at the top and bottom. The true meaning of this method is more forcibly to Ihew the effect of folding-doors, which could by no means be done, if this double-margined stile was to be tenanted into the top and bottom rail; and the bead run across the grain ol the wood. A mahogany door well executed, is, perhaps, one of the neatest pieces of workmanship that comes into the hands of joiners. There are many forts of them ; but I speak of the best ; such as are worth labour only 10I. or 121. making; numbers of which are in this metropolis, as well as in many noblemen and gentlemens houses in the country. As these sort of doors are unknown in some parts of the kingdom, I shall take the liberty to describe one of them. The best sort of mahogany doors are cased, having deal within both stiles and pannels ; and are done in the following manner: First, upon the edges of the stiles and rails, glue slips of mahogany, of an inch and quarter each ; also round the pannels must be put a margin of ditto, something broader than the raising, neatly mitred at the angles ; when they are raised and fineered, a small ar- tragestmoulding is put upon the top of the raising of the pannels ; likewise must be cross-banded at both ends, and all the pannels fluted upon the raisings round; the stiles and rails fineered as the pannels: the reason of applying the deal, is, for the advantage of fineering; having more attraction than any other wood. It 142 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, It is almost impossible to stipulate a price for one of those doors, without inspection, more than the labour; because it chiefly depends upon the value of the fineers ; which are from is. per foot to 10s. ditto and more ; therefore we must confine ourselves solely to the labour. A mahogany door, well executed in the above manner, is worth, per foot superficial, to a master, labour only, 12I. 10s. 6d. and will take a journeyman near nine weeks work; one of those doors with materials is worth 201. To the learner, who is not acquainted with the nature of fineering, I must observe to him to be particularly careful of his glue : for most of the errors that happen in fineering, are caused by laying on the glue too thin : glue for mahogany fineers should be at least of treble strength to what is commonly used for rubbing of joints ; also be careful that no water gets under the fineer, and that the iron you heat your work with be not moved to any dry place, but where your glue lodges ; keeping still wetting every part where you have occasion to move it. There are other mahogany doors, some fineered and others solid, from 2s. 6d. per foot to the a- bove price. s. I Mahogany doors solid, and flat pannel, are worth, with materials, per foot, 2 6 Surveyors allow, according as they are in goodness, from 2s. to 2 9 Masters charge - Z 0 Those that are fineered vary according to the price of those materials, &c. Wainscot doors are usually made with double margins in the middle, raised upon the pannel, with The Universal British Builder. 143 with an astragal moulding, and cross-banded, as mahogany ones. Any executed in the above manner are s. d. worth, per foot superficial, Surveyors allow to ditto Masters ditto •—> 6 6 3 3 4 o Ditto, with flat pannel, per foot supers. 2 3 The materials to a wainscot door, raised pannels on both sides, are worth per foot of good Norway oak, glue, &c. 1 4 Ditto, flat pannel, —• o 10 The labour to a wainscot door, raised pannel, double-margined, cross-banded, and an astragal mitred round the top of the raising, is about a fortnight’s work; ditto, with flat pannel, 6 days ; common doors, ovolo, and flat pannel on both sides, is 2 ^ days work. To a master are worth, per foot super- s. d. ficial, with materials, --- 1 4 Some surveyors allow ■— 1 6 Masters charge - 1 6 Ditto, with raised pannels on both sides, well done, are worth 1 10 Surveyors allow from is. yd. to 20 Masters charge of good stuff, well done, 2 o The labour to one of those doors is four days. Bead and flush doors of deal, 2 inch stuff, work on both sides, is worth per foot superficial, - 1 4 Surveyors allow from is. to 1 6 Many masters charge 16 Bead and flush, 2 inch stuff of wainscot, work on both sides, surveyors allow from is. ^d. to » - . .. . 2 2 Masters 144 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, s. I Masters charge --- 2 2 The labour to one of those is 6 days. Bead and flush doors, on one side, per foot, by masters, -- o 10 Surveyors allow from yd. to o 10 The labour to one of this fort is 1 ^ day. Ditto, ovlo and flat pannel, of whole- deal, work on one side, square back, the masters charge —- 0 10 Surveyors allow from 8d. to 0 10 The materials to whole-deal doors, ovo- lo and flat pannel, are worth per ft. supers, o 3; The labour to one of this fort of doors is 1 i day. This fort of work, stuck with an o-gee, or any other moulding, the fame. Whole-deal fquare-framed doors, and flat pannel, the surveyors allow, per foot single measure, from gd. to Masters charge —■ The labour to one of those doors is one day’s work. The materials are worth per foot The universal price should be per foot Whole-deal ledged doors, stuck with a I o-gee ploughed and tongued, the surveyors allow, per foot superficial, from 8d. to — —> Masters charge from 10d. to The materials to one of those doors, of good yellow deal, nails, &c. are worth per foot superficial, 0 0 2j 5* 0 5 The labour to ditto, 1 day %; which may be r- bout three-pence per foot more ; therefore the universal price should be per ditto qd. b ^ The Universal British Builder. 145 The learner must observe, that the ledgings or frame of one of these doors is mortised and tenoned together, and the frame so contracted, when nailed on, as to leave a rabbit both on the sides and the top for a stop against the door-case. Whole-deal doors, plain, with a bead upon the edges, and battens nailed upon s. d. the back, for warehouses, &c. surveyors allow, per foot of yellow deal, from 3d. Z to o 6 j Masters charge o 7 The materials to one of those doors are worth, per foot, o 3 £ The labour 1 day’s work. The universal price should be, per foot, o 6 j All half-inch batten-doors are worth per foot, stuff and labour, o 3 j Some masters charge o 4 | Surveyors allow from 3d. to o 45 Large coach-house doors, &c. yellow deal, of 2 j inch stuff, bead and flush in front, and filled with flush behind, or framed so, the masters charge per foot 2 O Surveyors allow from is. 6a. to 20 The materials to this fort of work are worth, per foot, — 0 7; The labour to those doors is worth, per foot, 10d; therefore the universal price should be, per soot, 1 8 T LECTURE 146 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, LECTURE XXV. C/'Floors. A FLOOR is the plain area, or superficial content of a room ; of these there are divers forts and qualities, as of Norway oak, clean deal, second best ditto, battens of three forts, white deals, &c. but the best are of oak. There is nothing very particular in the practice of floors ; though it may not be improper to make two or three observations: the first is, when lie prepares his boards to be very careful not to snoot the edges too much under ; for, if so done, they are then sure to creak, a thing very disagreeable: the next is, that he be particularly careful, that the joists next the walls be directly streight, and that the boards in these places (when laid) be of an exact thickness, and streight across ; for if there are any defects, they are sooner discovered at the ends of the boards than in the middle; besides, there-is the disadvantage of their remaining so, because they cannot so well be smoothed off. The next thing is, when you plough and tongue the ends of the heading-joints, lay that tenoned first; in so doing you will have two-thirds of the board to nail through ; if you lay the ploughed one first, you have but one-third ; besides, you will have the disadvantage of making both your joints with a rabbit-plane, which is troublesome. The next observation is, when you lay a dowel- floor, be sure to bore for the dowels, and utterly abolish the tafk-masters method of punching the edges; also, when you mark them, do not be too anxious in giving too much draught to the pins, sot The Universal British Builder. 147 by so doing you not only take away the efficacy and strength*. but bruise, and render the heading-joint more defective than if it was not close at all. With regard to the number of dowels, if the joists are no more than 10 inches apart, one between every joist will do ; if 12 inches, or 13 inches, there must be two, and of oak-floors three. The masters charge for dowel-floors of £. s. Norway oak, from inch and eighth to inch and quarter stuff, per square yard 5 10 Surveyors from 41. 10s. to 5 5 The materials, dowels, &c. are worth per square yard, of good Norway oak, inch and quarter stuff, Z Z The labour to a square of wainscot-floor, well done, is six days work ; therefore the universal price should be per square 4 15 Clean deal-floors, clear of sap, the masters charge, per square, from 41. 10s. to 7 o owing to a particular value they sometimes set on boards of an unusual length, which they get clean to lay through without any heading-]oints. I have known a master in London charge £. s. for particular boards, per square, 10 10 The stuff unprepared cost nd. per foot; and the master had kept it by him seven years, to serve a particular occasion. Surveyors allow for clean-floors of deal, from 3I. 15s. to 4 15 The boards and dowels to a square shot, clear of sap, are worth per square 3 o Labour to ditto, 4 ; days ; therefore the universal, price ffiould be 4 1 5 Second best ditto, dowelled, masters charge — — 40 Surveyors from ql. to 4 0 T 2 The 148 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, The materials are worth per square Labour, four days ; the universal price should be per square Common slreight joint floors, the masters charge per square, shot clear of sap, Surveyors allow from 1 1 . 15s. to The materials of shot clear of sap, are worth per square — Labour to ditto, 2 t days ; therefore the real value should be per square Common folding-doors of white deal, the masters charge from 11. 10s. to Surveyors allow from 11. 5s. to Good white stuff appropriated for floors, is worth per square, whole-deal, The labour to ditto, 2 days; therefore the universal price should be at least 1 13 Note, the nails and stirrings are included in the materials to all the above prices. The quantity of nails to all floors is as follows: To folding and streight-joint floors, every square will take 250 nails; dowelled ditto, 130. LECTURE XXVI. Of Grounds in general. G Rounds are the level or plain surfaces on which all works are fixed, and require but little execution ; though it is requisite all these things be noticed in the putting up ; because on the just and exact form of grounds, depends the consequence of many material matters; as the hanging of doors, window- The Universal British Builder. 149 5 5 2 0 3 1 1 > ! window-shutters, &c. as well as fixing of archa- traves, mouldings, &c. Grounds to doors must always be ploughed in the edge, if not mortised to receive dado, if any used. In making grounds to windows, care should be taken that they are not bevelled too much, lest that should be an impediment to the back-shutters; which is very frequently the cafe. Grounds to windows should be reduced to 3 of an inch upon the edge, and should not be bevelled more than 3 more, unless the window-fhutters are in spacious buildings, and run from 12 to 16 inches wide; in such cases there is no difficulty. Grounds in general are charged by masters, and allowed by surveyors, per foot, from 2 d. i to 3 d. J; which is a fair price, if grounds to windows are included; if not 2 d. a should be the price. Grounds to windows should be gd. double measure. All grounds to chimnies are charged, by d. masters, from 6 d. per foot superficial, to 8 z Surveyors allow from fjd. to 8 The materials, to chimney-grounds, with glue and nails, are worth per foot, qd. labour to ditto, to a master, ad. Therefore the real price should be 8d. LECTURE XXVII. Of W INDOW-SIIUTTERS. T HERE is nothing particular in the practice of shutters, more than what has already been said of other framing of doors, unless they are made flat pannel, which is the present practice, with an astragal moulding mitred round, about the distance of IZO A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, of the supposed raising: what I mean by difficulty here, is to advise the learner to be careful to secure his pannels, lest they should cast, which will cause some trouble when he comes to put on his mouldings ; the best method of doing this is to plough some pieces the thickness of the pannel; and, when you nave planed and finished them, put those pieces to the ends, till you have put on the mouldings : this may be done as well after shutters or doors are together; but the other is the cleanest way, which will appear in practice. Of hanging os shutters. There is some difficulty in the hanging of shutters to learners, therefore I shall endeavour to be as clear as possible in this particular. If shutters are hung double, that is, cut in the middle, they must always be hung the whole length first, and then taken down and cut; and observe, with regard to this last particular, that you do not cut the joint by the range of the middle bar, but square from each outward stile, till they both meet in the middle; the reason of this is obvious. If the sash-frames should incline either way, they would not open, if cut otherwise than square. In order to hang shutters at the first trial, observe the following method : First, set off the margin from the bead on both sides : after prick upon the sash-frame half the thickness of the joint of the hinge; then drive in brads at those pricks; to which put the shutter, and screw it to; and when opened, will exactly turn to the place required. Window-shutters are but very indifferently paid for; the masters charge per foot for front- The Universal British Builder. 151 d. o o sront-shutters, ovolo and flat pannel, bead s. and butt on the back, 1 Surveyors allow from 10d. to 1 The materials to window-shutters, ovolo and flat pannel in front, and flush bead behind, is worth per foot superficial, with glue, &c. o 4 The labour to ditto, hung double, to a master is worth per foot 98. therefore the price of front-fliutters should be 1 3 Ovolo and flat in front, and square behind, hung single, should be measured with the back-flaps and linings ; if they are framed, and all reckoned as single work, at per foot superficial, if well done, 1 o There is no way for either masters to be paid for their trouble, or gentlemen to have their work well done, unless this way of fettling the matter be adopted. The method by surveyors of measuring front- fliutters at value and half, and back-flaps but single measure, at the price of 10d. the former, and yd. the latter, will in no-wife pay the labour and half the stuff. For supposing a window of 18 feet, the making the shutters, sitting in, and hanging ditto, is at least five days work; which we will call only The stuff, glue, considering the disadvantage of cutting to waste, is worth, per foot all together, 3 d. |; which is I will fay, to sront-shutters 9 feet, at tod. Back-flaps, nine more, at yd. ditto s. d. *3 4 4 it 18 3 7 6 5 3 12 9 We 152 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, We find, by the above observations, that the labour to making and hanging shutters to a window comes to 18s, qd. and that the price allowed by many surveyors is only 12s. yd. with materials; therefore I will appeal to every sensible man, if this matter does not require a better stipulation. Some people may think that five days labour is more than these things will take; and so it is in some men; but we are not, in labour, to judge from the best workmen, but take the casual run in a shop : and if so, I believe we should find, to a window, well done, but little variation from the time above mentioned. Task-masters, indeed, would do the above work in three days : but work so done is of little use, when compared to, or placed near, something of the same kind from a capital shop. The real price of window-shutters should be stipulated according to the following example: Inch and half shutters, stuck with o-gee or fancy moulding mitred together, flat pan- nel with moulding round ditto, flush and s. I bead, or stuck with an ovolo, &c. should be per foot single measure 2 0 Ditto, raised in front on the pannes, with astragal moulding upon it, 2 3 Ditto, fluted upon the raising, 3 6 Back shutters to ditto, framedbead and flush, 1 0 All common window-shutters, fronts and back-flaps framed, should be valued all together at per foot superficial, with materials, 1 0 Common ovolo shutters, square behind, back flaps plane, per foot all together, 0 10 These prices are as low as any master, that does reputable work, can afford, to live by. lecture The Universal British Builder. 153 LECTURE XXVIII. Of Wainscotting. W Ainscotting, in this refined age, is quite ob- selete, and seldom used, except in studies, or offices for servants, &c. therefore shall omit saying any thing of it more than its value. Wainscotting with yellow deal, flat pan- s. d. nel, per yard, masters charge from 4 s. 6d. to 5 0 Surveyors allow from 3 s. qd. to 4 6 The materials, whole-deal, and § pannels, are worth per yard, glue, nails, putting up, &c. . 2 6 The neat labour to a yard of wainscot is, on the nearest calculation, valued at 1 s. 2d. therefore the universal price should be at least 4 O Square wainscot, whole white-deal pannels, of § stuff, masters charge from 3s. to 3 6 The surveyors allow from 2s. lod. to 3 3 The materials to a yard of white deal, square wainscotting, is worth 2 O Neat labour to ditto, 11 d. 1; the general price should be per yard 3 3 2 inch partitions, square, and flat on both fides, masters charge per yard 4 6 Surveyors allow per yard from 4 s. to 4 6 The materials to a yard of this fort of work are worth, per ditto, about 2 6 The labour to ditto, at the nearest calculation, a master must pay, is, is. 6d- therefore the universal price cannot be less than 4 6 Square U 154 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Square wainscot, framed flush for hang- s, L ing canvas against, for paper, &c. the masters charge 2 9 Surveyors allow from 2s. qd. to 28 The materials to a yard of this are worth 1 6 Neat labour to ditto 1 s. therefore the universal price of this fort of work should be 29 Of backs and elbows .. These are a good invention of wainfcotting, appropriated to the back and elbows of windows, and i'ramed after the manner of the shutters, which make not only the windows of one connected form, but also give more room, by the advantage of the projection of all the base and fur-bafe mouldings, which stop against the archatraves, and in this cafe go down to the floor, or finish upon a square plinth the height of the skirting. This fort of work is but poorly paid for; d- the price by masters is, per foot 6 * Surveyors allow from 50!. to 6* The labour to one foot of this work is 3 d. neat; materials are worth, per foot, ovolo and flat, 3d.-; therefore the universal price to masters should be y d. L, or 8 LECTURE XXIX. fy Sash-Frames and Sashes. S Ash-frames are a part of the business easily understood, and require but little merit in the execution ; the principal care should lie in the dividing the pullev-piece, so that there be room for the sashes to move; observe also, that if your fa sires are The Universal British Builder. *55 to be hung with iron weights, that the pulley-block be put within 3 inches of the top ; else if your frame is Ihort you will not have room, on account of the length of the weights. Observe, with regard to the inside linings, that they are not less in width than 4 5 inches. By so doing you will oftentimes prevent a great deal of unnecessary trouble in hanging the back-fhutters, and also have sufficient room for bars, &c. Sashes, well made, require good execution, and {hould always be put into the hands of men of merit and experience, by reason they are a part of the branch that is ever opposed to the eye, therefore should be made particularly clean ; especially that fort which is stuck with an astragal and hollow. There are many particulars to a well-made fasti which the learner must be apprized of; first, the planing up the stuff; secondly, the setting out; thirdly, the mortising; fourthly, the filhstring, and sticking the moulding ; and, fifthly, the great principle or master-stroke, which is the wedging up; for on this depends the beauty, or real effect. The learner must understand that the chief merit of a faff is attributed to the streightnefs of the bars, and superficies, which may be totally disconcerted by an unnecessary blow at one single wedge, though the whole work to it beside is ever so well done; therefore great care should be taken of this matter, as well as the forementioned observations. There are many ways of putting an astragal fasti together; the best method is to mitre the whole moulding, not through into the mortise, but a little lower than the face of the moulding, on both sides, to the extreme point at the top. The rail or bar that is tenonted must be mitred, as if for scribing ; and then cut under with a saw, U 2 from 156 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, from the point to the tenant. Observe, in dowsing salhes, that the dowles be not Ihorter than four inches. Sallies and frames are generally valued s. i. together, from is. 2d. per foot to 20 Sash-frames with oak-foils, pulley-pieces and outside linings of ditto, inside ditto of deal, the masters charge, with astragal salhes of good Norway oak,from is. 6d. to 20 Surveyors allow from is. ^d. to 20 The materials of fasti and frames together, to the above particular, are worth per foot 0 7 Neat labour to ditto, the fasti hung double, is about — — 0 6 Therefore the real or universal price should be per foot together 1 4 Astragal fa sites alone are worth per foot, with materials, and well made, o 9 Ditto, stuck with an ovolo, o 7 The masters charge for the former 1 0 The latter from lod. to o 11 Sash-frames, with oak pulley-pieces and foils, the out and inside linings deal, the head fineered, and oak salhes, stuck with an ovolo, the masters charge 1 9 Surveyors allow from is. 3d. to 1 8 The materials are worth per foot 0 6 The labour — 05 Therefore the price should be 1 3 Deal sash-frames and fa sties the masters charge per foot — 1 0 Surveyors allow from yd. to 1 0 The materials are worth per foot 0 4 The neat laboured, j; therefore the genuine price should be per foot o 10 t r Deal The Universal British Builder. 157 s . d . Deal sallies alone are worth per foot to a master — — 0 5 Sashes to fronts of shops, of mahogany, stuck with an astragal and hollow, to a master are worth per foot superficial 1 o Masters charge from is. to 1 3 Surveyors allow from 10 d. to 10 The materials to mahogany sashes are worth per foot — 06 Ditto, all shop-fronts that are made out of the common method, as octagon, figures, &c. are worth per foot 1 8 The neat labour to ditto 1 11 Circular figures double measure. Ditto, of wainscot or deal, the same as common sashes, to a double price. LECTURE XXX. Of Domical Sky-lights. A Domical sky-light is a part of the branch that requires a great deal of practice, or at least if it is put into the hands of a person unacquainted with its principles, he should be a tolerable adept in other particulars of practice, as well as having a profound knowledge of lines, not that there is any thing very extraordinary belonging to it, more than other circular work; after the consequence of the weather is guarded against, which must be maturely considered before he cuts one piece of stuff. The best method of doing this piece of work, in my opinion, is to make stiles of the upright ribs, (though it is not a common rule) having by this a better 158 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, a better opportunity of rabbiting the rails, which must be done for the upper end of every pane of glass, so that the pane above shall reach over | of an inch, for the clearer effect of discharging the water. The mode of making a skylight, m point of workmanship, is to make them exactly domical within, and stick them as another fash, making the stuff no thicker at the bottom than the top; the outside (for my own part) I would always make streight with the glass both ways, and cut the stiles out m notches, which will appear like stripes one above another, as the dome naturally rises: if the plan is an exact circle, and hath a concentric crown, one templet will do for all the stiles. The way to get the size of all the rails, to every different sweep, as the dome diminishes to the crown, is, first, draw the size of two ribs, with the outside marked to the glass ; and on those ribs set out the section of all the rails ; from which draw perpendiculars into the ground-plan, which will give you the exact size of every circle to the crown ; to every one of those it may not be amiss to make moulds, which will more pertinently point to the learner the length of the rails, because upon each mold, and at every stile he can set out the exact size of the stuff, and be more sure of his lengths: when these things are once got, he may proceed with the fame accuracy as in other circular works. The value of a domical sky-light, if mea- s. I fured single, is worth to a master per foot 5 6 Materials to ditto, of wainscot, per foot 2 0 Of deal — — — 1 8 Sash-makers can afford them considerably cheaper. LECTURE The Universal British Builder. 1 59 LECTURE XXXI. Of Stair-casing. al F all things to be considered in a building, he there is nothing so material as stairs, nor any ie thing that requires half the abilities, either to plan œ or execute, and may justly be called the master's piece of accommodation in every edifice ; for, on >e . a proper disposition, or disposal of stairs, depends >e (in a great measure) not only the strength and ic beauty, but the chief ease and deportment of the whole structure. 7 A whole volume might be written upon this fub- jest, and, when done, so various and extensive the £ i manner, as well as mode of execution, that this so essential a point must unavoidably be left to the ^ builders judgment at last, without it were possible 11 to define every plan and situation that could in e any wife happen ; a thing totally beyond the power s of art. However, it will not depreciate thejudg- i ment of any architect, to give this point a particu- e I lar thought, before one stone or brick is laid ; and [t not (as many do) leave an article so material to the s whole, to be jumbled up without either grace or I freedom. 1 Many people are of opinion, that there is no dif- f ficulty in stairs, provided there be room enough. -■ I must allow, that to the workman it is much ea- 3 her, when the place assigned is spacious, the stories 3 high, and entirely void of impediment; but, at the 1 -ame time, I must also observe, that it will require a masterly thought in the architect, to allow such a vacuum or opening, without endangering the , ihength of the structure ; this particular must be ^ maturely ch of of he nt 160 A Key to Civil Architecture*. Or, maturely considered, and not for the sake os this necessary part sacrifice the consequence os the whole building : notwithstanding, it would be (on the other hand) the height of imprudence, to construct, or design, any insufficient or inelegant to the purpose; and in order to avoid one error, plunge into similar absurdities • it is therefore upon these principles that our judgment should operate; studying first their intent, properties, and convenience ; the nature of the building will pertinently point out the mode of execution, and what will be adequate to the rest of the works proposed; the whole of which, more than the executive part, must depend, and that solely, upon the builder, or surveyors judgment. Several rules and precepts might be laid down, concerning the form, as well as the management of stairs, such as to have a liberal light against all casualties of flips and falls ; that head-way, or space above, in every respect be free and lofty; that half paces be judiciously distributed, and at competent distances; that the breadth of steps be never more than seventeen inches, or less than eleven inches ; and, that they exceed not by any means | seven inches in height, in order to prevent our legs from labouring more in elevation than distinction; that to prevent encounters by the way of passing, stairs should never be less in latitude than four feet six-inches; and many more of the like observations might be alluded to, though they cannot be strictly adhered with, for this special reason, because every situation of stairs is tied down to the rules of discretion, and under the necessity of pro - viding against their own inconveniences. Though it may not be amiss, for every surveyor or builder, in the first designing of a house, to con- The Universal British Builder. 16 1 sider the nature of the work itself; what fort of stairs have the best effect, both in form, and when executed; he perhaps might avoid in some measure those technical contracted plans, which are treble | the expence of elegant stairs, and which often destroy that gracefulness which should consist in an analogy, or correspondence, with the beauty of the whole building. It is from the forementioned observations, that the principles of stairs will ever be a matter of the first consequence in every age and to every student; for without it were possible to communicate wisdom, some people would not be benesitted by a volume written upon the subject of planning stairs. There are many more observations, touching the practice of stairs, which I shall treat of as they may occur to my memory ; omitting nothing that may conduce to the benefit of mankind, to whom I humbly dedicate my endeavours. Though there is as great a variety of forms of stairs, as there are situations ; yet their principles of practice are generally reduced to three, viz. geometry, bracket ditto, and what are called dog- I legged stairs. Geometry stairs are of that construction which seem, to the illiberal and vulgar, to have no support for the steps, having neither carriages, or leading-pieces to bear them; the properties of which I shall hereafter define. Bracket ditto, are such as have strings and newels, and are supported by carriages and leading- pieces of timber; the bracket of which is mitred to the end of the riser of the step, and finishes upon the stflng-board, which is moulded like an arenitrave, &c. W What 162 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, What are called dog-legged stairs, are such as have no vacuum or space between the leading or returning flight, but wind round one newel to the top; these, if there is room, have also leading-pieces for their support; if not, are sometimes fixed into strings on both sides, and put to the bearers for the winders. LECTURE XXXIL i Of the Practice of Stairs. B EFORE I begin to define the practice of stairs, I beg my reader to divest himself of all superfluous notions, such as unconnected lines laid down by many architects, as well as the studied maxims practised by numbers, and follow the sense of his own reason, close by the instructions I shall point out, and I make not the least doubt, but he will (after he has maturely weighed the practical methods I shall allude to) be capable of executing any thing that may occur in the course of the whole. If he is totally unacquainted with this matter, 1 must intreat of him, (if it may not be convenient to take my instructions to his bench) to study them till he can rote them by heart; by so doing, he will have the advantage of pursuing his work without let or molestation. lecture The Universal British Builder. 163 LECTURE XXXIII. Of the PraEtice of Dog-legged Stairs. T HE elevation of dog-legged stairs depends solely upon the nature of the size of the place they are to be fixed in, as length and width of the dan, as well as the heights of the different stories ; hut the chief article to be considered is the height; for let your plan as to length be ever so short, you must have a sufficient tread for the steps ; therefore the advantage for getting up must be taken in the half space, which may be divided into any number of winders required ; for the better understanding of which, mark the following examples. First, Upon a board, make a scale the size of the ground plan, viz. the length and width ; in the middle of the width set out the newels; this done, you will have the length of the steps. 2dly, Divide your length to the half-fpace for the number of streight fliers, both going to the half-pace, and returning from it, to the first story ; and leave the half-pace till you have divided your height. Zdly, By the side of the ground-plan continue up your newels ; and, having divided the height into the nearest number of steps you can have, count the number of streight fliers, both going and returning ; the remains, to make up the height of the story, must be had in the half-pace, equally divided. 4thly, Continue the lines of the width of the steps upon the plan of the first streight flight, and likewise meet them from the different heights marked upon the newel, which will form the lection of W 2 the j 64 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, the ends of the steps; after, to the treads, set on the projection of the nosings, and with a streight edge, draw a line close to them, which will be the upper-edge of the string ; then set out the width of the string, allowing for the thickness of leading- pieces, laths, and plaister, &c. After draw the side of the rail parallel to the string, two feet wide upon the square, with knee, &c. if there is one, which will complete the geometrical section of the first flight. 5thly, Count the number of winders in the half- pace ; at the top of which draw a base line, equal to the length of your returning flight; which may, perhaps, consist of one or two less than the first flight, as may be convenient for the advantage of the landing ; then proceed with drawing the section in every respect as before. The use of drawing the section of stairs is only to give the learner a clearer light into the nature of letting out his newels for mortising, which may be done equally as well by setting out the height and width upon a rod : but this is only to be done by people who have had some practice, or at least are in possession of fertile ideas. When you only use a rod without drawing the section, as before observed, count the height of the steps in the first streight flight; from which set out the width of the mortise downwards ; next set out the height of the winders, and the first step of the returning flight, with the rake of the nosings, which will give you the top of the mortise for the returning flight; and proceed with the rest as before. The learner must observe, with regard to fixing his middle newel, that the nosing of the first winder be exactly flush with the inside newel, that the whole thickness way be into the half-pace ; alfp on the The Universal Britisii Builder. 165 the returning flight, that the nosing of the first {height flier be flush with the outside of ditto into the half-pace : and this order must be followed with respect to newels in all stairs whatsoever. LECTURE XXXIV. Of setting out a Newel for Turning. T HE way to make a proper limit for the bottom of the turning, is to take the rake of the steps nosings, allowing thickness of the capping; and where that falls upon the inside of the newel, is the mark for turning : the newel of the returning flight must have the addition of one step in height, and then the rake of the pitch-board, or nosings, as before observed. LECTURE XXXV. Ofsetting out a cap, and mitring ditto square, before it issent to the turners. F IRST, draw the width of the hand-rail, and add to this the projection of the mouldings on both sides, for the outward diameter of the cap; to which draw a circle : then set within this circle the projection of the mouldings transferred from the {height rail, and draw inner circles to the different members ; and also from the {height rail draw the same lines of projection into those circles; and where they intersect, will be the points for the mitring the cap, drawn by a {height edge to the point, through different intersections ; then cut out the piece neatly, stick it in again with glue, and fend it to the turner’s. LECTURE iSS A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, LECTURE XXXVI. Of Bracket-Stairs. B Racket-stairs differ nothing from what has been already defined of dog-legged ditto, with regard to newels and strings ; only those have awell- hole between the leading and returning flight; some square others circular or oval ; and, instead of the ends of the steps fitting to the string-board, (as before observed) the strings are cut for the reception of the steps; not through any motive of strength or bearing, but ornament, that the bracket may be fixed, and mitred to the end of each riser, against the string, with the nosings of the steps continued round, which covers the joint of the bracket to the end of the step, and which hath a beautiful effect when well executed. The fame method, with regard to drawing the section of stairs, as before observed, I would still propose to learners in every respect, both for strings and rails, as well as ramps and scrolls, which will answer every point, both with respect to knees, ballusters, &c. There is no difficulty in these stairs more than the clean execution ; ballusters exactly dove-tailed into the ends of the steps, within the nosings properly divided ; the risers all glued to the covers, with backing-pieces glued on the inside of the step; and, when put up, the underside of the step nailed or screwed into the under-edge of the riser; and, when finished, put on the brackets of strength under the steps, well nailed to each leading-piece. Those that are unacquainted with the method of gluing risers to steps, I must inform them, that the best The Universal British Builder. 167 best method is to make a frame, or templet, to fix them in, with a place cut out for the projection of the nosing; after glue on the hollow under the nosing, and work them when together. I hope my reader will understand what I mean by a templet: it is only fixing two upright pieces in any thing, with notches cut out of each, the exact projection of the nosings, to which put the front-edge of the step, and then glue the riser to the cover close to the above pieces, &c. LECTURE XXXVII. Of Geometry-Stairs. T HE practice of geometry-stairs, which hath ever been considered as a master-piece of art, is founded upon as great a principle of strength, as is requisite for the consequence of the invention ; which is only to carry a certain weight, or vibrating ponderosity, in any case inferior to the power that doth sustain it. In order to prove this, we have only to measure the length of the step, and weight of ditto and riser, added to what we propose to go into the wall; then measure in the nature of continued quantity, as I have already defined in the lecture of the leaver; similar to the following example. The power that doth equi-ponderate with any Weight, must have the samp proportion unto it, as stiere is between their several distances: therefore st a step be 4 feet long clear, and six inches into the wall, the weight upon the end in the wall must be as eight to one. Suppose we fay the weight of the step and riser, with the weight of a man, which we will call 20 stone: 168 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, stone; that multiplied by 8 gives 20 hundred, for the power to sustain a man upon the end of one step naked in the wall; but we must consider that three fourths of this weight will be taken oft' by the support of the under-step ; therefore if we divide 20 by 4, we shall find, that 5 cwt. or yolb. placed upon the end of every step loose in the wall, will be sufficient to carry the weight of any man, without either wedge or nail; provided any thing is placed to keep the steps in their proper position; but what is this trifle in comparison to the pressure of a wedge, and the weight os a wall, or trussing of a partition? which, with interstices properly framed, will be adequate for the consequence of any stairs thus constructed. My reader must observe, with regard to steps of longer bearings than 4 feet, it will be necessary to augment the thickness of the covers, according to the following proportion. All steps of four feet clear should not be thinner than 1 j inch fluff; and for every fix inches more of length, one-eight more should be added to the thickness; also that geometry-steps go into the wall one tenth part of their length. There are a kind of geometry-stairs that wind round a column or pillar, whose bearing or certain gravity tends to one center ; those must be a little mortised into the pillar, the riser about an inch, and the tread as much as the square of the end os the cover will require, to be just clear at the points. These sorts of stairs are most frequently used for pulpits, Ac. and would almost hang with the com- mon support at the top and bottom ; however, the additional bearings into the pillar are of great service. The The Universal British Builder. i6g The method of putting those steps together, if they are clean worked on the under-side, is to dovetail the risers into the cover: and when put up, screw the step to the under-edges of the risers all the way up ; after fit in pieces of wood, neatly matched, in the holes made by the screws ; the brackets are mitred to the riser, and the nosing of the step continued round. This is much the cheapest way of doing geometry-stairs ; but there is a great defect of weakness in the brackets hanging in the above manner, loose as it were, having nothing to support them from every casualty; and yet to me the ancient method of moulding the steps underneath, in the form of the bracket, is heavy, unnatural, and very expensive, especially to winders. There is another method by some made use of, which is putting up blocks, and screwing them well together; and after covering them with riser and tread, instead of brackets, frame the under-side of them, so that each step appears as solid : these fort have not a bad effect, were it not that the ex- pence is so very extravagant. The best and simplest method of doing geometry- stairs, is, to put up a string as in others; mitre the bracket to the riser, and finish to the string ; then lath and plaister underneath, and finish with light belexion mouldings of plaister; and if the building is elegantly finished, it may not be amiss to introduce a light ornament in basso relievo. It may be necessary to observe, that the risers of 2 inch stuff, to geometry-stairs of this fort, would greatly add to their solidity. I think it needless to fay any thing more relative to the properties or practice of stairs, since the fare- ntentioned hints, with a little experience, must be sufficient for a very ordinary capacity ; therefore X shall ijO A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, shall instantly proceed with my remarks on the nature of hand-rails, &c. LECTURE XXXVIII. fy'H and-rails £0 Stairs. T HE manner of gluing up a twist to a scroll of a hand-rail, hath ever been (by workmen) esteemed a master-piece of the branch, and is considered by numbers as an incomparable piece of art; therefore in order to render this piece of practice as suitable as possible to the different capacities of workmen in general, I shall be as circumspect as the subject will allow, through an earnest desire that no man shall lack any thing in my power to communicate. x The first thing the learner should consider, is the nature of a scroll; its extent, and the cause of the twist. These things once understood, the practice of it will be obvious, and rendered very familiar. Whoever the first inventor of a scroll to a hand-rail was, I will affirm, that he was a man of enlarged ideas ; and, though the invention be rather inadequate to an elegant structure, and inferior to something which might be proposed for the purpose, it is, notwithstanding, judiciously contrived, and hath an ease in its mode of finishing) that will ever render it an object of notice in every ag e - A scroll is the perephery or circumference ot a a number of circles in a declining state, each less than another; therefore to draw this, is no more than to find out the centers, from whence lines lain down to various points, shall have given differences ; which once found, will always be the cen- The Universal British Builder. 171 ters required to form the volute; and may be in number at the discretion of the workman, or as the size of the plan may require, either extended or contracted. The cause of the twist is the geometrical elevation of the hypothenufe of a right-angled triangle, and must of course turn up when moved from its direct line of elevation ; and will be more or less according to the height or raking-line of the pitch- board, the pitch-board being the right-angled triangle above-mentioned, which is made from the height and width of the step ; and, being cut diagonally, gives the hypothenufe or rake of the rail. The intent and nature of a scroll, is to finish upon a level the raking of the rail; which, if not brought to this conclusion, must either be ended in a newel, or would finish on the ground ; because every raking-line hath an intent or tendency to a point of rest ; therefore, in this cafe of a hand-rail, it is wittingly stopped in its course, and brought to the above judicious conclusion : so that in the simple practice of this, the learner has nothing to consider but the height he hath to rise, whicn is one step, from the level part of the eye to the height of the pitch-board, which will directly meet the raking of the streight rail, and must be effected with an easy decline, in the natural winding state, to the very edge of the scroll. To the gluing this up there are three principal things to be considered : The first is the matching or appropriating the jhilf, so as the streight rail and grain of the twist mall unite, and appear as if cut out of one in tire piece of timber. X. 2 The 172 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, The second thing to be considered, is the situation of the raking part, and how much is added or augmented to it by the elevation, which bears the fame proportion as a raking-moulding to a level one. f The third and last. consideration is the falling of the twist from the streight rail to the eye of the scroll, which must be done in such a manner that it shall appear with ease and beauty. People who have had practice in gluing up handrails, must have acquired every tenet relative to it, and have no occasion to gather the least instructions that may or can be proposed by any author. To solve this particular for practice, is the great source of this article to those who have not; i will therefore propose the simplest method in art and nature, in order to form a proper conception suitable to the weakest capacity, ' LECTURE XXXIX. A Definition of Gluing-up Hand-rails without > Lines, j S upposing a man had a thing of this sort to do ' in a remote part of the kingdom, where there was not an architect-book in possession of either the master or himself, and the whole idea they can form of this matter, is, that upon the first step the hand-rail turps round to an eye or cap ol a newel, and forms a scroll; to such a person I propose the following method: After he has put up the steps, and cut out the first by his eye to the best appearance he can, let him plane up the streight part of the handrail, and lay it down upon the nosings of the steps: secondly- The Universal British Builder. 173 let him also cut by his eye a mould to the size he proposes his hand-rail, observing to give the easiest turn to the rail he can ; not abridging the sweeps, but bring it down within two inches of the front of the step, and turn it round to the eye, after the belt manner he is able : thirdly, let him cut by this mould a piece or block for the eye thicker than the depth of the side of the rail, by so much as the thickness of the pitch-board is, from the base line to the rake, two inches from the first point; which will be as much as the rail hath to fall, from the square of the twist to the eye : fourthly, let him get out one or two pieces to make out the width of the twist, and glue them against the side of the streight rail, and to this block, which will make the whole ; observing that these pieces, which make the twist, are to be cut with the pitch-boards raking-line ; which, when glued, or proffered to, will be answerable to the block and streight rail, and also give the rise of the twist. When these pieces are held against the rail, the learner will find, that he will want wood upon the top-side of the streight rail, and the under-side likewise; these must be glued on, or left upon the streight rail solid before it is planed up; I fay, if he glues the pieces on, and cuts the outside of the rail by his eye, as near as he can, square from the ground-plan, and from the outside squares the top of the rail, and gauges the width and thickness, from these two sides, neatly cut by his eye, I propound this method will do ; and, if the man hath a good eye, will have a pretty effect without ever a line. Though some adepts in the practice of hand-rails would laugh at such a method, I beg leave to tell them, that I have laid down the lines to several people, 174 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, people, and shewed them their properties yet have not been able to make them understand, without having recourse to some similar practices of this kind; not that I propose this scheme to men that have either seen, or have the least conception of stairs, or hand-rails ; but to learners that have had no practice, and who may not have the least idea of it. To people who have a knowledge of business, there are other considerations: First, the raking- mould, which must be made adequate to the length and width of the twisted part when held upon the rake, and perpendicular to the ground-plan; likewise the mould for the back or fall of the twist, from the streight part to the level part of the eye, both outside and inside. Many people use no mould for the inside of the rail, but make the top or back of the rail square from the outside. But this method is not so well; for if it is done so, when you mould the rail, the fall from the streight part will be too rapid, and will cause a fort of lameness. The next method, or thing to be thought of, is the squaring of the pieces before they are glued on, which may be easily done, and is a common practice ; and when they are glued on, to be finished and moulded, one joint is left open to be broke, for the better convenience of working the scroll. The way to find the raking-mould for the curve or turn of the twisted part of the hand-rail, is, first to draw the ground-plan of the rail, and thereon represent the pieces which are to make the scroll, or twisted part of the rail; upon the ground draw the width of the first step ; then laying the pitch-board down flat upon the plan of the first step, the base osthe pitch-board against the rail, draw the The Universal British Builder, 175 width of the rail into the raking part of the pitch- board, which will give the width of the end : likewise draw the height of the turn of the twist through the pitch-board, and square from the raking-line ; and draw different lines from the plan drawn through the raking part, and take off the several distances with your dividers, from the base of the pitch- board to the plan, and transfer them from thence to the raking part, in the manner of an an gle-b racket; and you will have the raking mould required. But things of this fort are much better understood by lines, or inspection, than description ; therefore I would in cafes of this fort, as well as the manner of drawing a scroll, refer my reader to those things drawn, with their manner of performance, as strewn by architects. Observe, if you make use of a raking-mould, (though many do without) you must make it of pasteboard, in order that it may bend to the declivity of the rail; else you cannot so well mark the top of the rail by it. By the raking-mould your pieces must be cut for the turn and width of the rail; the mould for the fall of the twist, and regular curve for the top of the rail, is done in the following manner. Upon the ground-plan, where your twist begins upon the streight rail, divide the outward curve- line into any number of parts, and transfer them upon a streight line; at the end of which place the pitch-board, which you will understand is the height you have to rife ; then divide the raking-line of the pitch-board into any number of parts, and likewise the remainder of the streight line, from whence you began the first part you transferred from the plan; and after draw intersections of streight lines, which will exactly give the curve of the under-side of the rail; then set up the depth of the side of the rail , parallel 17 6 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, rallel to this, and you will have the curve of die whole twill stretched out; with this mould you must cut your pieces both at the top and bottom; also the streight part of the rail that begins to turn up, right away to the level of the eye, and your work will be properly squared before it is put together; observe in the gluing of them, that you do not set them twisting one to another, and likewise perpendicular to the plan. LECTUR E XL. The Method of drawing a Scroll. T HE method of drawing a scroll is to form a circle equal to the width of two steps, divided into eight parts: from the center draw a lesser circle, for the size of the eye, larger than the width of the rail by the addition of the mouldings, as a cap to a newel: from the first draw a tranverfe diameter, and through the center again draw a conjugate one; then from the outside of the inner circle, to the large one of two steps, divide the upper part of the conjugal diameter into eight parts, for the diminishing scale; from the outward circle, upon the last mentioned diameter, draw a line to the outside of the streight rail to the point of the transverse diameter, set the other point of your dividers, and describe a sweep to the diagonal line, which will be the width of the scale; the eight parts drawn through this, to the point of the diameter at the outside of the rail, will give the different parts; all to be set upon the diameters, or eight parts, as they follow of course ; when so much is done set your divider from the center of the eye, to the outward part of the circle, and move it to the first eighth p art » next The Universal British Builder. 177 next the streight rail; and make a mark in the eye, and likewise from the diameter, or a little above upon the streight rail, set your point, and find the mark in the eye last made, which will be the center for the first eighth-part; then proceed with the second; and so on to the eye. If this is not plain enough, I must refer you to the drawing of a scroll. Observe, that there is no necessity, to make a scroll equal to two steps, nor follow the manner I have said of the size of the eye; either os which may be made larger or less, as fancy moves the artist; only consider the size you make the outward circle, and from that to the inner one ; divide the scale into any number of parts you choose to diminish by, and draw, or divide the greater circle into the like; proceed as before ; sometimes a scroll is made equal to a step and a half; for-"times but One step ; and sometimes but a quarter of a revolution ; according to the taste of the surveyor or builder. LECTURE XLI. Of Ramps. A Ramp is a portion of a circle ; the center of it is formed by a square line drawn from the take of the rail, and likewise the level of the knee at the top of the half pace continued to this line, gives the center for drawing the curve of the ramp, which is in height the rife of two steps ; sometimes ramps rife three or four steps, in particular cafes, where there are winders ; but those have a bad ef- k 61 , owing to the upper part of the ramp having almost no curve. Y Ramps, j 78 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Ramps, if possible, should be cut out of the fame plank with the streight rail ; in the last mentioned cafe, the ramp must be glued on to the streight rail. LECTURE XLIL Os gluing up Hand-rails to circular Plans. T HE many various forms and modes of disposing, to the best advantage, a decripped or bad concerted plan for stairs, often draws a fertile genius to wrestle with inconveniences more destruc- ctive to his tranquility, than matters apparently of much more consequence. Stair-casing may justly be called an art of peculiar tendency, because the more labour is spent in the execution of its particular parts, the more it is subjected to bad causes and ill effects, from the very motives that should add grace and freedom to the nature of it, which is in the manner of the hand-rail, and can never by any scheme be made pleasing if stretched into any ’irregular form, as upon plans that consist of a compound or mixture or steps, that is, winders and fliers. Stairs of this fort cannot, by any power in wisdom and nature, be made to have either a pleasing or a good appearance ; notwithstanding it will not be possible always to avoid them. It is greatly to be lamented, that the difficulty required to execute all irregular plans to stairs, should not make surveyors more careful in the disposing of them, since they have not one good quality either in circumstance or mode to recommend them ; and yet so infatuated are the builders of this age The Universal British Builder. 179 age to things of this fort, that we scarcely fee one good building, but what is merely contrived for a pile of these unnatural productions. However, since they are alone the taste of the times, it is sit we should endeavour to point out the most simple and judicious method for executing their hand-rails. There are many ways of gluing up a hand-rail to a circular, oval, or eleptical plan ; but the best, in my opinion, if you have but little ground or opening, is, to do it in thicknesses after the following manner; first, glue up a cilinder of a plank to the size of the well-hole, and having rounded it to fit the plan, draw upon it the section of the ends of the steps. If it is an entire circular plan, a streight edge will touch all the nosings, and the rail will be in a proper natural rising position ; but if you have any streight fliers before the winders, the fame after to finish the story ; the rail, instead of retaining its natural figure, will, through its own inconveniences, be transformed to the shape and almost figure of an S ; for the learner must observe in hand-rails of this fort, there is obliged to be given an additional length to the banisters, in the circular part upon the winders, in order to remedy the defect, which is caused by the sudden elevation of the steps; and for want of distension, or breadth of covers, throws us above our natural position, in either ascending or descending, and obliges us, for the benefit of having hold of the rail, to have recourse to the above experiment; if not so, we should be in danger of falling over the rail in the above-mentioned part; therefore, that very place which should in reason (to cause a pleasing appearance Y 2 in 180 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, in the rail) be lowest, is for the motive above-men- tioued unavoidably and indispensibly confined to be the highest. There are some necessary observations relative to the practice of these rails ; the first is, the consideration of the matching of the stuff, which must be contrived and cut out of one intire piece of timber, and the fineers all appropriated in the fame places they are cut off, in regular succession ; and observe, that in the getting this timber cut, that you maturely study the size you want both ways ; and remember, that to a rail of two inches and a half, it will require a piece of timber fix inches wide, to allow for the faw-carffs and planing up, especially if the opening doth not exceed two feet. There is another observation, relative to the depth of the stuff, for the size of the rail, which requires some thought, if the plan consists of winders, and streight fliers to finish the story ; for the learner must observe, that the turn required to the rail, both to the winders and from them is subjected to a cause, which he never would think of, (till either practice or instructions convinced him,) therefore it will be highly requisite for him to leave an inch more breadth to the fineers, than the depth of the rail -, the ground of this maxim is, that no body of fineers applied one upon another in a rising state, if they are turned from their natural course, either up or down, but will vary in the laying, as much as the difference of the two twists, between the first mentioned state of rising, and that which the rail is turned to when continued to the fliers ; and may be, according to the ground of the opening, one thirty- second part of an inch ; therefore, if your rail requires to be glued in twenty-four or more inches thickness, you will be so many half-sixteenths of The Universal British Builder. 1- :o 'e i- e s ) / i8r an inch out of square in the turning part, (more or less, according to the plan, and number of fineers required ;) therefore this width must be given to the fineers before they are laid, to be squared ost after. In order to lay fineers upon a cilinder, observe the following example : If you have no convenience for doing this, and are obliged to make use of bed-fcrews or wedges, lay all your fineers upon the cilinder together, and screw them down all the way dry, and having prepared pieces of wood to lay across the rails at 9, 10, or 12 inches apart, and bored holes through them as may answer to be close to the rail; opposite to them bore holes in the cilinder, adequate to receive them. If your cilinder is of plank stuff, this will be sufficient attraction ; but if thinner, I would propose the setting your cilinder upon stools, or legs, for convenience of getting underneath, and put the screws through the under-side, and make use of the nuts upon the top for confinement; and, having loosed one half, take the assistance of two men, one to hold up all the fineers, the other to lay them down successively as you glue them, then all hands to fixing the screws ; which, if well done, will be the moss judicious method of doing any rail of this construction; then proceed to the other half as above. My reader must observe, if the rail be for a regular plan, either circular or oval, he will have no occasion to augment the width of his fineers more than what is just necessary for clearing off, because the rail will come off the cilinder ready squared. With regard to the number of fineers to make the adequate thickness, you must be a little particular, in order to have a few shavings to plane ost the outside ; 182 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, outside; because where the screws are applied, the fineers will naturally be most close, and consequently leave hills between, which will want planing off when struck. The learner may take notice, if he hath not leisure to wait till the rail is dry, (which, in the best weather, will require three weeks) he may proceed as before, and glue down another by the side of it. Many people of the profession argue against rails of this fort, and give a preference to gluing them up solid; but I cannot side with such an opinion. To an opening of three feet and a half, or four feet, where the rail may be cut out of one entire plank, it may be a feasible method. The great particular of matching the stuff to fmall-grounded plans (glued up solid) will ever raise objefsions against the rectitude of this mode of appropriation, besides the danger of so many joints, and all glued across the grain, which creates a fault in the strength, and is in no wife equal to the purpose. However, if the learner is infatuated to this method, the best way that I can propose for the execution of it, is, still to make use of a cilinder, and either cut the top off to the position and rife of the steps, and square from the perpendicular of it, which will be adequate to the ground ; or else cut out your pieces, and fit them side-ways to the cilinder, by the nosings of the steps, as you would proceed with the fineers. This work may be done without the trouble of making a cilinder, by finding or making a mould for the backing of the rail : but there is a great difficulty attends this, and it is hardly to be found correct. Every author that hath attempted the resolution of laving this down, is in point of disgrace ; none having come at a proficiency, nor is The Universal British Builder. 383 it to be well done without practical allusions: As I lay down no lines, and a description without, in this particular, would be no advantage to the learner, I must beg his excuse, and refer him to the true methods alluded to ; which, when once he is in possession of, will furnish him with comprehensions for any other subject of this sort. I beg to observe to the learner, that if the plan consists of fliers and winders, in the meeting or joining of those two parts he will be careful to give the rail as easy a turn as possible, and not directly follow the steps ; and likewise, that he leaves wood both at the top and bottom side of his fineers, at the joining of the twist to the scroll; if it is a regular circular plan, it will require very little ; and with the scroll proceed in every respect as to a llreight rail. With regard to strings to circular stairs, I would not propose the gluing them up in fineers, but solid ; especially, if the plan is only circular at one end; in such a case glue them up and down in the manner of the cilinder ; and cut to the section of the steps, at the upper edge ; and at the bottom in a regular rising state, as in the llreight part. Strings to circular stairs are worth per foot 4s. 6d. LECTURE XL III. Of the Value os Dog-legged-St airs. C Ommon dog-legged stairs, with bearers and strings included, the masters, s. d. charge from yd. per foot to 1 o Surveyors allow upon an average about 8d. j, or o 9 The 184 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, w; a D The materials to ditto of yellow deal, bearers, strings, nails, &c. upon the nearest calculation are worth The neat labour to ditto about 2d; therefore the universal price may be, per foot superficial, Rails and banisters to ditto, of inch deal, planed square to represent iron, are worth per foot, if ballusters are included, newels turned, capped, &c. The labour to ditto is worth to a master Masters charge, when valued this per foot Surveyors allow from is. 6d. to Some surveyors measure the rail superficial, including newels, at per foot and allow per balluster, with capping, &c. which comes partly to the same money. If newels are not turned, nor capped, the price is, or should be, per foot Ditto turned ballusters of 2 inch stuff, per piece Bracket-stairs of strong stuff, per foot, the masters charge If of second-best risers and covers Surveyors allow to ditto; from is. to The materials to ditto are worth, per foot, gd. the neat labour well done, about 4 d. i; therefore the universal price should be, per foot, is. or The strings measured at the above price; the architrave at lod. per foot superficial. The brackets, if plain, per piece, If carved from is. 6d. to Ditto of clean deal, per foot superficial, the mailers charge, per foot, from 1 s. 6d. to 0 d, 31 0 7 0 6 Si 7 1 1 S b 0 The The Universal British Builder. 185 s. d. The surveyors allow from 1 s. 3 d. to 1 8 The materials according to the ground of the tread, if very good, are worth per foot o 8 Labour to ditto about 6d. therefore we cannot stipulate the price at more per foot than 1 5 Architraves and brackets as before. Geometry-stairs, of clean deal, with a string, are worth per foot superficial from 2S. 6d. to 3 o These fort both the masters and surveyors in common are unacquainted with, it being rare to fee one done this way. The materials to ditto with risers of 2 inch stuff, good screws, &c. are worth per foot, if they are wedged in a plank in the wall, I fay, are worth, per foot superficial, from 9d. to — '— 10 Labour to ditto is worth to a master 1 10 Geometry-stairs moulded under the steps, according to the bracket, are worth per foot, from 3s. to >— .— 3 6 Materials to ditto are worth 2 o Labour to ditto — 10 Mahogany hand-rails, scroll and ramp, the masters charge per foot supers, from 3 s. to 4 6 according to the goodness of the stuff. 1 he mahogany to ditto is worth per foot, of Jamaica wood, 6d. of Rattan, 3 d. labour to ditto is about 2s. per foot; therefore the real price should be per foot 3 6 Surveyors allow from 2s. 6d. to 4 0 . All circular rails double measure, which m some respects is too lit so ; if the surveyors wil Z out 186 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, out of their humour, and will allow no more s. d. than double measure, the price should be per foot -— —■ , y 6 Labour to ditto, single measure y 6 And also allow is. per foot for the cilin- der, deal rails, scroll and ramp, is worth per foot — —- 20 Masters charge for ditto 2 3 Surveyors allow from is. 6d. to 20 LECTURE XLIV. Of Frontispieces. T HE word Frontispiece imports the fore-side or entrance of a door, usually made more rich and beautiful than the rest of the exterior work. There are many different sorts of those; but the most elegant are such as are made according to the designs of one of the five established orders, invented and delineated by the ancients. The most considerable of them for the purpose is the Doric, on account of the large projections of its cornice, which prevents the inclemency of the weather from affecting those who may have occasion to wait at the doors for admittance ; a matter of very great consequence. The manner of appropriating the orders to frontispieces, is to lay aside the pedestal, with all its appurtenances, and let the base of the column finish upon the first step with a sub-plinth. The method of proportioning the Doric order to frontispieces, is to let the whole be guided by the proper symmetry of the door, in the following j manner: Make the height of the door equal to two I diameters; The Universal British Builder. 187 diameters ; after divide the width of the door into four parts, and one will be the diameter of the column ; the height of the column, base, and capitol will be equal to 8 diameters; the architrave, friefe, and cornice is 2 diameters high; the pedement is in height two-ninths of the width; the Doric column diminishes one-lixth of the diameter at the bottom. The Tuscan door may be divided into four also, and one is the diameter of the column ; the height of the column, with base and capitol, is equal to 7 diameters, the intablature 2, which makes the whole height 9 diameters ; the pedement as before. For the Ionic front, the door’s width must be divided into 9 parts, and two is the diameter of the column; the height, with base and cap, is 9 diameters, and 2 the height of the intablature, which makes the whole 11 diameters high ; the proportion of the pedement is the fame as before. To proportion a Corinthian frontispiece, divide the width of the door into 5 parts, and one is the diameter of the column ; the height, with base and capitol, is 10 diameters; the intablature 2; the height of the pedement is 2-9ths of the width. The general proportions of the Composite order are the fame as the Corinthian. The component parts to each front may be had by consulting the orders, as a description here would not make any addition, or be more clear than what may be seen by inspection. The practice of frontispieces may be reckoned equal to any thing m the business ; therefore it may not be amiss to point out its properties, and where the difficulties he, so that the learner may proceed with judgment a nd accuracy. Z 2 The i88 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, The design being fixed upon, and the several mouldings laid down at large, with the pitch of the pedement, diameter of the column both at the bottom and tap, with the cap and base drawn from them, &c. the first thing the learner should turn his thoughts upon, is the gluing up the columns, I which cannot be trifled with ; for these being badly executed, will totally eclipse the beauty os the whole ; notwithstanding, the whole mass of mouldings, and decorations, as the trigliffs, mutules, frets, caps, bases, as well as the circular-soffite, jamb-linmg, &c. which are all very essential points, must be done well in their place, to render it an object Vorthy the notice of the public. And first of the columns. The learner must observe, that the customary method of gluing up columns, is to divide them at the base and cap into eight parts : which done will strew the thickness of the stuff required; to find this draw the lines across through the circumference, and after lay down the lines close by the outside of the circle, both at the top and bottom of the co- • lumn, which will shew it in an octagon state, and point out the width of the staves both at the top of and bottom ; which will vary as much as: the column diminishes on one side : when you have got the width of the staves at the top and bottom, you must consider that the natural meaning of all columns is to be represented swelling, (either from the base or from one third of the straff: but for fronts of doors I approve of the former method, or at least j within one foot of the bottom ;) and cannot begot otherwise than by diminishing the outside of the staves equal to one side of what the column diffli- nilhes to the top ; therefore the first thing, after the The Universal British Builder. 189 stuff is fawn out, is to diminish the staves by aboard cut for the purpose intended. As the diminishing a column is a secret to some, I shall endeavour to point out a more clear and judicious manner than was ever offered to the public before. First, draw a circle for the size of the column below ; and within it another, which will be the size of the top ; and having drawn a line through the middle, for the diameter upon it, where the inner circle cuts, draw a line square into the outward circle, which gives a portion of it, that the column diminishes; then, having got a board equal to the length of the shaft, divide it into any number of parts you like, supposing eight; next with your compasses divide that portion of the outward circle (that the square line cuts off) to the diameter into eight parts also ; and draw lines from each into the square line, all tending to the center of the circles, which will give the scale : then take off each part, and transfer them into the diminishing board, from the streight. edge, and drive in brads at each point, about which bend a regular thin lath, which will form the diminifhing-board required. Observe, when you diminish stuff) if you are pinched for thickness, that you need not plane it all off at the top-end, for it matters not whether it is taken off the top or the bottom, so that it does but fit the templet above-mentioned; and be but at each end pricked off and planed to a regular thickness, that the pieces of cants, which must be glued on the inside for strength, fit the inside of the staves ; hav- ln g gone so far, set your bevel to the edge, and Make a little templet to fit the outside of two by the drawing when together, in order to try them, when you joint the edges; and glue two and two together igo A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, first; and then glue them in halves, and after glue the two halves together, which will compleat the whole; for a frontispiece you may perhaps want no more than 7 staves, in which cafe you must first glue 6 together by two’s, and one more after, or joint them one against another in successions as other joints. The learner must observe, that if the iron of his jointing-plane be not particularly square, when he comes to round his columns, his joints will be open, which will have a very disagreeable appearance, besides being very defective in point of strength. The method of rounding a column is, to cut a hoard circular the size of the base, and another the size of the top, and nail them on to each end, having bored holes to put pins through at each end, hang them in a creel, by the side or on the top of the bench, for the advantage of turning them round ; plane them to the templets at each end, and by the diminishing board for length, and your work is done. Bases and caps are sometimes glued up as columns, and sometimes are got out as solid of different thicknesses ; the latter method is much the strongest, though attended with more expence; observe in this last method, that the thickness of the stuff be always equal to the moulding, and that the joints be always m quirks and fillets. Having done the columns, bases, and caps, the next thing of material consequence, is, the fronton or pedement, which is superior in size to the level work, in proportion to the pitch; therefore, the moulding and other decorations will require to be made adequate to the purpose. The Universal British Builder, *91 The simplest way to find the size and curve of a raking-moulding, is, first, to draw the level one; from which, set out the height of the pedement, and draw lines parallel from the level fillets, by the raking-line, parallel to each other at the top end ; in any part of the raking lines, draw the size of the moulding, equal to this width, with the projections of the level moulding, and draw a line through the face of each, the fame as you would do to draw the curves of an o-gee or simarecta; and, having divided this face-line into any number of parts, draw them square from this last-mentioned line into the moulding, and transfer them to the raking part, which will give the points for tracing the curves; this mav be done full as well by pricking off the curves in the middle of the level moulding, and transferring them to the raking one ; and, after finding a center that will strike three pricks, will draw the raking curve required. The way to cut a raking mould to mitre to the level one, is, to make a pitch-board equal to the nfe of the pedement, and put it into the mitre box, and set the moulding upon it; then cut it in the lame manner as another mitre. The way to mitre a little o-gee round the block, and mutules in a pediment, is, to make a little jack for the purpose to shoot thernqn, and glue them on before they are put to the planceer ; the learner must observe, that there must be three sorts of mouldings to cap a block upon the rake, which hears this analogy ; as the level moulding is to she raking one, so is the raking ditto to the returning one of the top, and found in the fame manner as the other; as the putting the different works together well, can only be acquired by practice, for any ig2 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, any further explanation, must refer my reader, as it is impossible to communicate execution. Of a circular Soffite to a Frontispiece. The best method of gluing up what is called the the stiles of a soffite, is to do them in two widths, and break the joints ; if they are to be stuck, that is, framed, you must be careful to turn the grain j with the edge all one way, for the advantage of sticking the moulding, and fineer the stiles the , thickness of the square of the plan ; the best way of confining a fineer upon any concave circular-work, as the above stiles, or such as may be wider, is, to ; plough a couple of pieces, and nail one fast upon 1 one end first, and thrust the fineer round with the i end into this plough-grove, which will give the exact length ; then, when you have laid on your j glue, thrust it in as before, and put on the other piece likewise, and nail it fast down upon the other ; end, and if your fineer is long enough, the glue ; will all be properly squeezed out without any other j force. If the soffite is plain, I would only make a fineer, and cut out ribs to bend it upon, with rails across equal to the width, and proceed as before observed ; after the fineer is on and dry, glue backings on the outside, which is much the readiest way, and will answer well the purpose ; the jamb-linings are the same as to any other Framing. LECTURE The Universal British Builder. r9Z LECTURE XLV. Of the Value of Frontispieces. F rontispieces, if valued properly, should in every respect and part have a different price. First, the jamb-linings, which should be s. d. made particularly well, if of flat pannel, are worth per foot to a master ■—■ i o Of raised ditto ■—> — — i Z Of bead and flush - j — 1 o The materials are worth per soot, whole yellow deal — — — ° 5 Surveyors allow, and masters charge, well done, from lod. to - l 4 The ground to a front, the masters charge, per foot — — — — 08 Surveyors allow from 6d. to — o 7 5 The materials are worth 2d. §, the labour 3d. therefore the price may be — o 7 If the columns, base, and cap, are valued together, which is a custom by some, the masters charge per foot from is. gd. to 2 6 Surveyors allow the fame, according as the work is executed; but the most general price is - 2 O The materials, to ditto, are worth per foot superficial, including the care of timber, which should be put through all columns, to take the weight off the base and cap o 9 The neat labour, with expence pf turning, per foot --- o 85 If for bases, are solid ; the labour altogether well done —--- 011 A a There- 194 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Therefore the real price should be per foot superficial - All the level mouldings, the masters charge - Surveyors allow from is. to The raking mouldings l 2 l 2 1 3 Mouldings of all frontispieces, as they are, or at least should be, all of good yellow deal, are worth per foot — 1 o The architrave and cornice, with friefe taken together, is worth per foot with the trigliffs, bells, &c. 2 6 The materials to ditto, are worth per foot o 6 The method of valuing those, is, to value the blocks or mutules at so much per piece, plain blocks from gd. to o 1 Those with bells in them, from 2S. to 36 The friefe, at per foot, from is. 6d. to 20 All the mouldings at per foot — 1 Z The bearers and cover-boards at per foot 0 0 The columns stiaft, per foot superficial 1 6 The base and cap, per foot, at 2 6 The fub-plinth, and plinth of the base, together at 0 7 Frets, under the planceer of the raking part, per foot — 20 Flutings, upon the. facio, per foot 0 6 The above prices, which are the medium of many surveyors prices, are near enough, and not extravagant; the quantity of stuff for mouldings hath already been considered, therefore need no further explanation. Fan-lights to frontispieces are done from 2S. per foot to Some- The Universal British Builder. 195 Sometimes they are paid by the piece, but this is an uncertain way, LECTURE XLVI. 1 Offluting Columns or Pilasters. T HE way to set out a column for fluting, is, to divide it at its base into ninety4ix parts, and give one to the fillet, and three to the flute, which will just make in number twenty-four flutes, and twenty-four fillets. The way to gauge a column for fluting, is, to fix a parallel piece to the middle of the column, and turn it round to every prick, or part, as you have set it out, and run the gauge fireight along as in other work. The method of gauging a pilaster, having divided it into twenty-nine parts, and given one to the fillet, and three to each flute, is, to make a gauge that will run half of them at one time, and after turn it to the other side for the other half: if the pilasters diminish, you must make a gauge with pricks equal to the whole, cut out to fit the width ■ of the pilaster at the bottom, and, where it begins to diminish, turn the gauge a little a-fkew, and continue so to the top, observing to keep the points of the notchings of the gauge close to the outside of the pilaster on both edges, so will your flutes be regular, and diminish properly. With regard to cabling columns and pilasters ; some people have a method of working cables in the solid, with a plane 1 made for the purpose ; but, for my own part, I do 1 not approve of it, because it doth not work clean. Columns fluted and cabled require the addition A a 2 of ig6 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, of nine-pence per foot, Or three-pence pence per foot run, of every flute and cable. LECTURE XLVII. Of Gluing up Corinthian or Ionic Capitols. T HERE is nothing very difficult in this work, save a judgment in appropriating the pieces to their proper places, and applying the gram of the wood the fame way of the staves glued up ; the best way to find which, is to draw the size of the capitol, with the leaves, abucus, &c. and their proper projections, which will point out the length and thickness of each piece. The fame of the Composite capitol, &c. Of Chimney-pieces. Chimney-pieces are a great addition to rooms, and require clean execution ; the mode of proportions assigned to them, is the dextrous result of fancy, which at present is in large estimation. There are many elegant and judicious designs published, which might serve as a standard of this fort of work; but custom having long ago bid defiance to propriety, and is now stalking abroad without let or molestation, what I have before said of mouldings should serve as an index to chimney-pieces as well as the rest of the works of this kind. Chimney-pieces the masters charge per s. d. foot from is. to 1 8 Surveyors allow from qd. to i 6 All plain chimney-pieces worked by hand are worth per foot Ditto with breaks l o Wil The Universal British Builder. igj s. d. With dentils 1 6 Fret dentils are charged per foot run o 6 Common fillet dentils per foot run o 4 Frets to frieses to ditto per foot run 2 o Fluting in frieses, f inches wide, per foot 2 6 Fluting upon facios per foot run o 8 Flutings and beads in frieses are per foot run — ■—■ 02 As chimney-pieces are a particular work, the a- bove prices, are in general such as take the medium, both with respect to the masters charging, and what surveyors allow; therefore shall not enquire too strictly into the merits of them, because they are so very tedious, and take much time to execute. LECTURE XLVIII. Of a Circular Splayed Sqffite in a Sireight Wall. A Circular splayed soffite in a streight wall hath no great difficulty, after a proper curve is found for the stiles ; the following method is without exception. First, draw the lines by the splay of the wall till they meet at a point; after transfer the length of these lines to another place; and having divided the circle of the arch into equal parts, and transferred them on to a sweep struck by the above radius, your stile is found ; when bent round, will be the exact curb for the outside of the wall; then set off the stile, and proceed as in other circular work. LECTURE ig8 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, LECTURE XLIX. A Circular Splayed Soffite in a Circular Wall. A Circular splayed soffite in a circular wall is upon the fame principle as the above, though it requires more judgment in the execution. EXAMPLE, , First lay down the curve of the wall, with the splay os the jambs, and transfer them as before; then divide the circle into any number of equal parts, and transfer them to the curve struck by the center, from the splay of the jambs; after draw the lines all to the center; then draw a square line close to the front of the outward curve of the wall; and, having drawn the arch a little below the windows opening, continue lines perpendicular from the parts, the arch was divided into, to the fquare-line ; laid close to the curve of the wall, and the sweep struck by the center and splay of the jambs, which will give the points for tracing the curve; which when held upon the splay, and bent round, will exactly answer the purpose: the outside being once i got, proceed with the best advantage. Things of this kind very rarely happen; when they do, they should be put into the hands of men of great experience, and good judgment. There is no value in reason can be fixed to this work: the method is to measure them four times; but this is too little at the common prices. This method will do in point of stuff; but if this work is framed, the prices should be per foot is. and subject to the ■ above measurement. But jobbs of this kind, the surveyors The Universal British Builder. m materials and labour of the masters, and stipulate a price accordingly. LECTURE L. Of Dressers, D RESSERS should be always made of white deal very clean : there is nothing required in these but their value. The masters charge for 2 inch dressers s. d. per foot — — 12 Surveyors allow from is. to 12 The materials are worth per foot o 6 Labour to ditto qd. therefore is. per foot is vqry reasonable 1 o Columns to ditto are worth per foot, 3 by 3, per piece — 16 Masters charge for ditto from is. 6d, to 2 o Drawers are worth per foot of deal o 7 Runners to ditto per foot lineal O 2i Shelves to dressers are worth per foot, of whole deal, — 17 Common horfe-plane cornice to ditto per foot run — o 3 Of Slit-deal Linings* All flit-deal linings are worth per yard, °f white deal, ploughed, tongued, and beaded, —- 2 2 Ditto of whole yellow deal 3s. lod. or 4 O Bracketing to plaister cornices per foot r . un Zd. if 6 inches square; if but 4 inches ditto o 4 LECTURE 200 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, LECTURE LI. Of Torus-Skirting. I T Orus-skirting is worth per foot o 7 Ditto to stairs double measure. As there is a difficulty in putting this up to stairs, I shall give my learner a method, which, if he pursues with accuracy, he shall in this point never err. EXAMPLE. First make two templets, one with the nosing cut out, so that it may go close to the riser ; the other the width of one of the highest steps made parallel; lay the stdrting-board close to the nosings of the steps : then with the templet against the riser mark ; all the lines for the risers, and with the parallel board strike out the lines to fit upon the treads; observe also, if the covers are a litte cast, set your compasses to the part, and from the top-edge of the board prick off the deficiency downwards; andhav- j ing procured a piece off one of the nosings, mark on the board as is required for every step, those ex- ' actly cut will fit at the very first time ; if not, it is of 1 little use; because a second scribing either up or down alters the nosings and the general tenor of the whole, which cannot be any-wile so well executed as at the first time. are worth per foot from 10d. to Labour to ditto. Os Trunks. Trunks of good yellow deal, well pitched, s. d. 1 0 o 3 ; LECTURE The Universal British Builder. 201 LECTURE Eli. Of Carpenters Work. Hough Carpenters work must be allowed and A considered as the principal source of strength in every building, yet the practice of it is less irksome and difficult than many other of the interior parts of a structure, especially in London, where it is a rarity to fee what may be called a piece of good carpenters work: not but there are many capital jobbs in this branch, though they seldom occur, except it is in the country, at the mansion-house of some nobleman, or gentleman, whose chief pleasure it is, and was, to erect something noble, to Ihew their regard for their paternal estates. There is nothing very material in the practice of carpentry, more than what demonstrates itself by a drawing; therefore I shall not take up my reader’s time with what he may esteem as trivial observations ; and only give some few hints of the particular methods and properties., and proceed with the value and consequence of materials. 1 First of foundations, as it is the carpenters business to fettle the particular under-filings, and subtraction, touching the solidity of the ground. With respect to piles, or planking, I must advise him to have a particular care both for the benefit of of others, as well his own work; and weigh well the consequence of the superstructure by the intended size and height, in order, if possible, to prevent premature settlements, as well as the under conducts or conveyances of stallage, cefs-pools for the foil, &c.“that they likewise be in no-wife detrimental to the natural grounding of the foundation. Bb When 202 A Key to Civil Architecture ; Or, When his mind is at rest with respect to the basis of his building, he must then turn his thoughts to the centring for the vaults. There are various forms of those ; but the strongest, in my opinion, is the circular; for if bricks or stones to those were cut wedge-wife, and disposed in the form of an arch all from one center, the bricks or stones can in no-wife ' sink downwards, for want of room to descend perpendicular ; because all solid materials must descend directly downwards, for ponderosity hath a natural tendency to the center of the world, and nature will perform her works by the shortest lines ; neither i can the hutments of a semicircular arch suffer so much as one made flatter, because the roundness of it will rather incline the weight to rest upon, than shove them out. There is no difficulty in either making or setting of centers, but what every man that hath served a ( time to the business must naturally know; notwithstanding, I shall not omit to acquaint my reader, that the most familiar method of setting centers, is, to cut pieces of quarter equal to the length at the top and bottom, and set your bearers upon wedges, for the convenience of easily striking them; also if the vault is groined, to keep them up considerably in the middle, to prevent a defect in appearance by the setting of the arch ; a thing very common 1 in arches or vaults of a great span. As some young men may be unacquainted with the nature of striking out centers, the following is a certain method, for every part or a portion of a circle whatsoever. EXAMPLE. The Universal British Builder. 203 EXAMPLE. First draw a base line equal to the width of the arch you intend; from the middle raise a perpendicular equal to the height, and likewise continue ' it below the base line ; then from the height to the point of half the width, draw an hypothenuse line, m the middle of which set to your square, and draw a line into the perpendicular, which will be the center required : and so of every other circle. An eleptic may be struck with a trammel for a rough arch ; but the most exact and best method is to divide half the width and the height into any number of equal parts, and draw intersection of lines, which will form the arch desired. The centers being done, the next thing that requires the carpenters thoughts, is, the plates for the floors to rest upon in the walls, which are of the greatest service imaginable, both with respect to strength, and form in practice; also, if the building is of no consequence, and requires binding-joists, consider well the nature of them, both with respect to scantling and disposition, and that they by no means exceed g feet 6 inches apart, or 4 feet at the farthest, to prevent too great a scantling for the bridgings. The practice of this work is familiar ; the binding-] oists are mortised into the girder flush with the under-side, and so much below the top as will allow the thickness of the bridgings to be equal with the top of the girder ; the binding-joist mortised near the under-edge, for the ceiling-joists at one end, and flip into a chafe-mortife at the other. Partitions come next under our examination, but require no difficulty : the principal thing in B b 2 par- 204 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, partitions lies in the judgment of properly placing the braces, so as they may in some measure serve as a kind of burnent or hay one to another; where those are used, they are both of strength in supporting the upper floors, besides are a tye to the building by the top-rail being dove-tailed upon the plates, though should not be too frequently used, ' being less serviceable than partition-walls; having mentioned those things, we will not doubt but the ingenious carpenter, will, from the hints before given, remember the adjuncts of hrength and convenience, such as bond-timbers, lintels, discharging- j pieces, tassels, and have them put in their proper j places, for the advantage of putting up his own | work, and turn our thoughts to the great confide- j ration of every building, which is the roof, and hath a two-fold meaning, both of equal consequence. The first, is, the natural notion of the benefits intended, which is a shelter or covering from the inclemency of the weather ; the second, is, the extremity of the properties of this covering, which requires some thought, that they may not be inconsiderately applied as too heavy or too light; (both of which I have in my lecture of strength hinted at) the former hath the common objection of pressing too much the under-work; the latter (though of less danger) is always subject to the power of a storm. With regard to the height of the pitch of roof, the natural effect of the climate should be the only guide ; for if the situation where we build is cold, and subject to heavy falls of snow, the pitch should be particularlv higher, to give a fall to the gathering-weight; though, I think, the cow won pitch, understood by every workman, will be high enough for any part of tins kingdoxti; and hme- The Universal British Builder. 205 thing under this, will do for all the cities and large towns, especially for pan-tiles. The principal thing, in the practice of roofing, is the scarfing, or the raising of wall-plates, to find the length and backing of the hip-raftors, to contrive the trusses, that they may take part of the weight from the beams of the principals, and also be a shore to the length of the rasters ; also, to lay out the different skirts of the roof in ledgement, to find out the real length of every piece, as well as the quantity of stuff required. LECTURE LIIL To find the Length of a Hip-rcftor to any Angle. F IRST, upon your drawing, lay down the principal you hip the roof to, and make a line through the middle of the plan, which is the base of the ridge ; then draw the base-line of your hip ; from this base-line, in the point of the base of the ndge, raise a perpendicular, and prick off the height of the pitch of the roof, from which prick, to the outward point of the base line at the angle, draw the hypothenufe, which will be the length °f the raster required ; after, set off the thickness at the top and bottom, and you have the form of the hip-raftor with the bevels at each end. LECTURE 20 6 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, LECTURE LIV. How to back a Hip for any Angle. D RAW a line across the angle of the roof, parallel from each corner, at any distance; in the middle of this line (which will be upon the base of the hip) set the point of your dividers, and extend the other to the nearest place against the inside of the hip just laid down, then turn your dividers to the base-line towards the ridge, and make a mark, which drawn to the outward points of the parallel line, will give the backing of the hip required. I think it needless to lay any thing concerning the method of mortising and tenanting roofs together, or of trusting of girders, or scarfing of plates, since Langley and others have so largely defined thele things ; an immediate recourse to them will {hew, and, moreover, are much plainer by inspection than description. It may not be amiss to mention that tie-beams should not be more than ten feet apart, and well pinned down upon the plates ; the strength of a dove-tail being insufficient for the strength required, that the pieces you appropriate to tie the angles, be of sufficient scantling, well pinned down also, to keep every part in due form, and adequate to the purpose. lecture The Universal British Builder. 207 LECTURE LV. Os the Proper Scantling of Timbers. Scantling of Girders. I F the length of a girder- of fir be sFt. In. In. 12 9 * by 8; 14 11 by 9 16 12 by 10 j 18 by 12 20 22 M by 12 j 24 !5 by *3 ^26 16 by 13- Of Binding-Joists. sFt. In. In. If their length J 8 6 by 5 be ] 10 7 by 5 (_12 8 by 5 Observe, that no joist should exceed 13 feet in length, and lay 6 inches into the wall. Of Bridging-Joists. Ft. In. Length 3 3 by 4 ' 4 by In. 3 4 Common 208 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, Common Floorings where neither Binding or Bridging-Joifts are used. Ft." fin. in. Length 10 Their scantling J 7 should be 1 8 by 3 11' by 3 26^ [9 Of Fir-Beams. by 3 Length. Scantling. But if of oak. Ft. In. In. In. In. 3 ° 6 by 7 7 by 8 45 9 by 8; 10 by 11 j 60 12 by 11 13 by 15 Principal Raftors. Length. If the s Ft. 1 its scantling fin in.-] rasters <> 2 | ^ the boU f by 7 I. beoffir i 36 | "tttk , » by to f L 46 J be pio by 12J p tro o T3 in. in. 5 6 6 8 If of oak at bottom. In. In. 8 by g 9 by 101 10 by 12 i If at the top. In. In. 7 by 8 8 by 9 9 b y 10 Small The Universal British Builder. 209 Small Raftors. Length. Scantling. Ft. In. In. 8 3 3 by 2i 10 41 by 2; 12 5 i by 2 i 1 Purlines must be in large buildings, (where they are framed into principal raftors,) 9 inches by 8; in small buildings, when laid into the collar- beams, 4 by 51; raising-plates, and all walss plates should be 9 by 5 ; lentils and difcharging- pieces, 9 by 6 ; bond-timber, 6 by 2 j; tassels ditto. LECTURE LVI. Of the Value of Carpenters Work. j TURaming of floors, with binding-)oints, £. s. L and all materials of oak, from 21. 15 s. to 3 10 when the timber is valued in scantlings at 3s. per foot. Surveyors allow, when both girder, bind- mg-posts, bridgings, and cielings ditto, are, of oak, from 2I. 10s. to 3 5 Note, the materials to a square of the above floor are worth, when the oak is cut lo scantling, at 2s. 8d. per foot 2 8 Labour to ditto 10s. therefore 3I. 5s. per square is as little as can be allowed. As materials of every kind vary in every county, I must beg my reader to abide by C c the 210 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or* the labour in this particular for the country, and value his stuff at a fair appraisement. £< s, Floors of fir, with binding-joists, the masters charge per square from 11. ros. to 22 Surveyors allow about 1 16 The materials at is. 6d. per foot in scantlings are worth — 14 Labour to ditto 8 s. 6d. therefore the price should be about ■—• ■—■ 1 18 Common naked floors, the masters charge per square, of fir, from 11. 8s. to 1 18 Surveyors allow about the fame for those as the bridging floors ; because the quantity of materials run near the fame ; the latter rather more. The price of these floors is not extravagant, of fir, at per square, 1 18 The neat labour to those is about 6s. the j masters charge 0 9 Surveyors allow 8s. 6d. which should be the universal price for labour. Framed partitions scantlings 4 by 3, the masters charge per square, from ll. to 15 Surveyors allow per ditto 1 0 The materials are worth, of fir, 12s. the labour to a master 8s. therefore we will call it — —. 1 2 | Ditto trusted partitions, labour is worth per square — — o 10 All bond-timbers, lintels, discharging- pieces, &c. are charged at is. 6d. per foot cube. j Framing of king-post roofs, with purlines, I Sic. per square of fir, the masters charge Z 10 Surveyors allow from 2I. 14s. to 3 0 ‘ : ° The The Universal British Builder. 211 The materials per square of this sort of £. s. framing are worth about 2I. Zs. the neat labour 108. therefore the price should be 218 Labour only of this work to a master is worth per square . —■ o 14 Common roofs with a ridge-tree the masters charge per square, with all materials, from ll. 15s. to . 20 Surveyors allow according to pitch from ll. 10s. to — — 1 16 The materials to a square of this fort of roofing, with raifmg-plates, tie-beams, ridge, &c. are worth -— — 1 6 Labour to ditto to a master is worth gs. therefore the price is low enough at 1 15 Extra-work to trusting of girders, beams, s. d. &c. at per foot run, of oak, o 6 2 Ditto of fir, per ditto o 5 Bridged guttering, of whole deal, is worth per foot superficial o 6 2 Ditto with oak-bearers o 7 r Bailors feet and eaves-boards for state, per foot superficial o 41 Door cafes, framed of fir, rabbited and beaded, at per foot cube, masters charge 2 8 Surveyors allow from 2s. 6d. to 2 8 The labour to one is worth per cube id. and the materials 4 by 4to a door of 6 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 3 inches, are worth is- 8d. therefore the price of 2s. 8d. is little enough ; the best way of valuing those ls to measure them superficial atq d. per foot. C c 2 Centring 212 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, Centring for groins, per square, masters s. d. charge 12 0 The surveyors allow from 9 s. to no The materials wasted, &c. may be valued at 60 The labour to making, striking, &c. to a master in worth very well 6s. therefore the standard is 12 0 Framed quarter-paces to stairs per foot, with materials, from 8d. to 10 Leading pieces of fir, per foot cube, 2 0 LECTURE EVIL Of Plumbers Work. P Lumbers work is all valued by the long hundred or ii2lb. and bears a price according as it weighs per foot, from qlb. to 12 Ib ditto, and is of different forts, as sheet lead, and milled ditto; the former is used for all gutters, platforms, and covering of roofs; the latter for ridges of houses, hips, tops of cornices, &c. I think it but of little use to enter into the quality of lead, (which is of various forts) since the plumbers have an opportunity of giving you what sort they please. The plumbers method of doing their business is to value their work at so much per hundred; and after charge you the time for laying, and finishing, which I think, is a very weak as well as indolent method, and fit only to encourage their men m idleness. The price that plumbers charge for 7 Ib. £■ to the foot, is, from il. 2s. to 1 3 Surveyors allow 1 2 / The The Universal British Builder. 213 The value of lead, considering the waste in the melting, is worth per hundred about 19s. therefore ll. 28. is sufficient. I think it a folly in surveyors to allow more per hundred for lead of tolb. or 11 Ib. per foot, than 7Ib. which is the general rule, let the plumbers custom be what it will. The true and genuine method of valuing plumbers work, is, to state the price for ffieet-lead of any weight above 7 Ib. to the foot at il. 3 s. per hundred, which will allow is. per hundred laying, which is quite sufficient. Milled lead is of a thinner and finer quality, and should be per foot laid and £. s. d. soldered, at per hundred 150 The price of casting and laying lead is from qs. to •— 036 Casting old lead, and the plumbers make up the deficiency 049 Water-pipes, from 1 inch to 8 inches bore, solder and labour included 170 Rain-water-pipes, and pumps, per hundred — 180 Water-pipes of large bore per yard or hundred weight. The customary allowance by plumbers for old lead is 14s. Sasti-weights at per hundred 1 1 0 Solder per pound 8d. Z, or 0 0 9 The price of soldering water-pipes is 6d. per joint to — 1 2 0 One of | inch bore is -- 0 2 6 1 inch ditto — 0 3 0 1 r inch —> 0 Z 6 2 inches — 0 4 0 3 inches — 0 6 6 4 inches -—> 0 Q 0 One 214 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, £• J. d. One of 5 inches —> o 12 0 6 inches —> o 15 0 7 inches —> l 0 0 7 j inches — i 1 0 All dimensions between those bear an exact proportion. The price of stop-cocks are per pound o 1 3 Ditto, setting on solder and labour, at per cock, of an inch and half diameter o 8 0 Ditto, j inch, at per cock o 3 0 One inch ditto — o 5 0 Brass-cocks, of an inch and half diameter, with bosses, solder, and setting on, per cock — o 7 0 Ditto, of inch, per cock o 4 0 Ditto, t inch, per cock o 3 0 LECTURE LVIII. * Of Masons Work. H Aving already said so much of the principles and properties of building, I hope my reader will excuse a dissertation on Masonry, as the volume is already stretched beyond the intended size. Notwithstanding, it is a noble art, and bears its date ever since the first intent of Jabel, the son of Lamech, who invented the first house of stones and trees. Masonry hath in its practice every definitive principle of geometry, and is not surpassed by any of the liberal arts. The way that masons value their work solid, is, first to consider the cubical measurement of the stone, The Universal British Builder. 215 stone, and the work as superficial, reckoning nothing for what is not seen, accounting all stone under two inches as superficial; what is above this, or 3 inches, as solid measure. Key and ashler fronts, of Portland stone, s. d. the masters charge per foot superficial 1 6 Surveyors allow from is. 3d. to 1 6 Besides, measuring the solidity of the keystones, or bonds, which go through the wall, and charged per foot cube 3 9 The value of materials to a foot of key and ashler work, considering the sawing and the veins that often are detrimental in the opening of a block of stone, which cannot before be seen, is worth, with materials to setting, per foot superficial 9d. labour to squaring, rubbing, fitting, &c. is worth 6d. therefore the price allowed by surveyors is not in the least exorbitant at 16 Plain-work, as curbs to iron-rails, &c. at per foot superficial 1 2 The stone at per foot cube 3 o Holes for iron-bars, cut in ditto, at per pee. o 2 Portland astragal steps are worth per foot superficial — l O the solidity of the stone as before. Ditto, plain steps, per foot superficial o 6 Portland coping, a foot wide, per foot run 1 10 Mouldings of Portland stone, of all forts, at per foot superficial 1 7 Circular ditto —> 1 9 the stone measured as solid. Slips and mantles to chimnies, of Portland stone, are worth at per foot superficial 1 o Ditto, superficial moulding to chimnies with stone, per foot — 18 Portland 216 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, £• s. d. Portland slabs at per foot o i o Portland paving at per foot superficial o i 6 The shafts of columns, of Portland stone, per foot superficial — 012 Bases and caps to ditto --- 030 Ditto columns-fluted, and cabled of stone, labour only, - 019 the Stone valued as before. Doric intablatures of stone at per foot superficial — — 056 Carving the capitols of Corinthian and Compositive orders at per foot supers. o 11 0 Italian marble at per foot cube 110 Plain work on dittto, as slips and mantles, at per foot — 040 Slabs of ditto at — —. 046 Dove marble in slabs at per foot 050 Mouldings of chimney-pieces, &c. of any fort of marble at per foot»superficial, from 3s. 6d. to —• —- 050 the marble valued extra. Marble, of different forts, must be valued according to its quality, and is from ll. is. per foot cube to 300 Small mouldings of marble at per foot run from 6d. to o 1 0 Portland geometry-steps are worth per foot superficial o 1 0 The stone for those must be valued at per foot 036 on account of the variety of blocks that must be opened before those can be all got found. Fire-stone covings with materials at per foot superficial o 1 2 Ditto The Universal British Builder. Ditto in hearths per ditto Purbeck steps, at per foot run with (lone, Purbeck paving in random-courses, at per foot I Old purbeck pavingat per foot fquar- | ed and new laid 217 £. s. d. Oil 026 007; 002 My reader may perhaps wonder why I have not in masons work proceeded with the value and labour as in other work. I own it was my intent, but hearing of the laudable design now on foot of the masters raising the mens wages three shillings per week, I therefore made the digression, knowing well that their prices will not be in the least extravagant when that is put in execution ; therefore, I hope, as my whole motive is designed for the benefit of mankind, I shall be freed from all aspersions in the above particular, in deviating from my general plan. LECTURE LIX. Of Estimating in General. I Almost think it unnecessary to mention estimating in general, since I have been so particular m all the component parts of a building, which might be by the learner easily put or compiled together ; however, to prevent every argument that might be offered, touching my neglect, I shall propose the simplest and most concise method in my power, in order that the learner may have no doubt of my fully acquiescing with every particular D d of 2i8 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, of my proposals, as well as my ardency to serve him in every article that occurs to my memory. Many surveyors have, or propose methods for estimating, by knowing the exterior dimensions of a building, that is, guesting at the expence by the number of squares the house contains ; but this is a very uncertain rule, and can never be followed with any degree of certainty, unless all buildings were finished in one manner, and consisted of no other variations than the size of the structure ; in such a case a proper criterion might be formed ; but, as this never can happen, it is obvious that any examples laid down of this nature could only (like the artist, who pretends to the world, he hath a power adequate to the uncertain changes of fortune in the calculation of the lotteries) amuse, without the least benefit or advantage. The only and general thought required in estimating a building, is, to be well apprised of the intent, both respecting the size of every part and particular, as well as the manner and mode of execution ; without a conclusion of these principles, the greatest judge in nature, can only guess at the expence ; these things being fixed, the drawings will point out the size of every part, and the prices before mentioned, applied to every particular, according to the different dimensions, will form a near certainty for the whole. If the learner hath no drawings given, and has only an idea propounded by the gentleman, what fort of a structure he would chuse, and what expence he had settled within himself, to be finished after such and such a manner; let him make first, a drawing of the plan and elevation, (having first examined the ground for the consequence of the under-silings) by which he The Universal British Builder. 219 will be able to come at the expence of the piling, planking, &c. if any required ; proceed then to take the value of the foundation, as digging and taking away the earth, next the brick-work, hone, &c. in the foundation, which is easily calculated as I have before observed, according to the height of the building ; then the expence of the brick work only, in the bafement-story, both outward and inward walls, vaults and cefs-pools, &c. then the brick-work in the first story, or ground-floor ; and so from story to story, to the top of the edifice, toping of chimneys, &c. with all the arches, tiling, and every other incident in brick-layers work. Secondly, according to the size of the house, let him calculate the scantlings of the different timbers in every story for the floors, as well as the lintels, wood-bricks, difcharging-pieces, bond-timberS, &c. what is measured cubical, and what by the square, as well as door-cases, centers, both for vaults, openings, and apertures, not omitting the trimmers, whether arched or coach-headed, roofing, plates, tie-beams, guttering, boarding, raftors-Teet, nor any vacuum, where a piece of timber may be required. Thirdly, the sash-frames and fashes, throughout the whole house. Fourthly, the covering, whether lead, slate, or tile, & c . Fifthly, the joiners-wofk in every room, on every floor, the quality as well as quantity of materials, not forgetting the furring of walls, floors, &c. bracketing to cornices, glue, nails, and every other tncident; likewise, the stairs in every respect and part, according to their bearings, whether with or without carriages; nails, screws, glue, templets, blinders, &c. the casualty of removing lumber and D d 2 other 220 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, other incidents, that may retard the progress of your practice. Sixthly, the plaisterers-work after the fame manner in every room, with the gentleman’s proposals of ornaments, decorations, &c. making allowances for the inconveniences that generally attend the progress of their work, by scaffolding, &c. Seventhly, the masons-work both without and within, as steps, ashlers, facios, coping, quoins, rusticks, pavings, floors, hearths, jambs, mantles, coverings, caps, carvings, &c. all according to their different size and value ; omitting nothing in this business more than the rest. Eighthly, the painters - work all through the house ; every floor separate, and let every part and portion that hath variations be strictly nominated: the number of times required to be done over, with observations of fronts, and other work that is paid by the foot, whether run or superficial. Ninthly, the glaziers-work in every respect and part the same as in other branches. Tenthly, the carvers-work also in every article, which must be most strictly considered in every point, because of the great expence attending this beautiful branch. Eleventhly, the plumbers-work, both touching the capping of cornices, fronts, facios, gutters, hips, vallies, fixtures, pipes for stallage, pumps, drains, water-closets, &c. soldering, and every other incident required. The same of smiths-work, paviours, &c. that will cause any expence. After those matters are all noticed, sum up the whole, to answer the sketch given; if you run above the stipulated price, such contractions in the mode of finishing must be made as will reduce your plan The Universal British Builder. 221 plan to the gentleman’s proposals, if he will not be reconciled otherwise to what the purport of his intention amounts to. The best and most sure way to be perfect, and to a strict nicety in every particular, is to make drawings of every room and part with the ornaments prefixt, as well as the section, plan, and elevation of the whole : also, mark every room, and every branch to each apartment or floor ; and in summing up the whole, take care to allow a sufficiency for casualties, that in the execution you may not much exceed your stipulated sum, and incur the gentleman’s displeasure. LECTURE EX. Schedule o/'Prices to Task-Masters. Of Carpenters Task-Work. ! K ING-post roofs with purlines, &c. and fixing on the irons at per sq. Ditto common roofs per square Bridged floors, with binding joists included, at per square - Common naked floors per square Ceiling ditto per square —> Trusted partitions - Common partitions per spuare — Plates, bond-timbers, discharging-pieces, lintels, &c. at per hundred feet run Centring to vaults rough — If groined - Centers to apertures at per foot Bridged-gutters at per foot supers. Ditto vally-boards per foot — s. d. 10 o 6 6 8 6 6 o 7 6 5 6 5 o 3 o 4 6 5 6 o i o 3 o i Raftors 222 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Raftors-feet and eaves-board per foot run - Framing the carcases of houses per sq. Door-cases per foot —■ — If rabbited and beaded - Bracketing to plaister cornices run Clean-dowelled-floors per square Second best ditto - Streight joint ditto of board — Ditto with battins — Folding-floors per square — Furring-joists per square . ■—> Listing-boards per list — Doors ovolo and flat on both sides foot - s. d. o 6 o o 0 6 2 IJ per Ditto stuck on one side square back Doors with fancy-mouldings quirked per foot — Astragal-mouldings on the pannels to ditto at per foot run - All window-stiutters per foot ovolo, and flat, square behind, hung single Ditto hung double —- if stuck with a quirk moulding. Bead and slum behind, and hung double, are worth per foot — Astragal-mouldings on the pannels to ditto - Back-shutters framed square — If bead and but hung double — Plain clamped back-shutters per foot Framing linings - Doors bead and flush, &c. both sides, per foot - Ditto beaded on one side 17 0 15 0 8 0 10 0 6 0 1 2 O Oz O 6 o 3i o 7 O 2 o 6 o 7 o 10 O 2 O Zi O 4* O 2 s o 3 o 8 0 5 j B ead The Universal British Builder. 223 Bead and flush shutters to outside work Sashes and frames with oak-casings, soils, beads, &c. together —> Ditto with mahogany sashes Fir sashes and frames together per foot Venetian and Palladian window-frames and sashes at per foot Mouldings of all forts at per foot Columns at per foot Pilasters ditto — Fluting columns, or pilasters, the flutes at per foot run ■— If cabled as far as the length of ditto Doric friefes at per foot superficial Doric blocks plain per foot , Raking ditto - Ditto with enrichments -- Frets 6 inches broad, per foot Small frets per foot run Fluting of facios per foot run Friefes fluted and bead per foot run ; the plane of the friefe at per foot superficial The beads and flutes run at The method of measuring ditto, is, to take the length of one flute, and multiply tke number of flutes in the friefe. Terms to chimney-pieces per foot supers. Gluing up Ionic caps for carvers at per piece - Corinthian ditto per foot superficial Dado per yard - Torus skirting per foot Up stair-cafesjlouble measure. Horfevplane courses per foot run Orgees per foot run s. d. 0 5* 0 7 0 8 ,• 0 5 2 0 O 6 O 10 O 6 O G O 2 5 O 10 O 6 O 8 2 6 2 a O 6 O 5 O 25 O 1 2 O 9 2 0 O 6 1 6 O 21 O 1 ; O 0? Dog- 224 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, £■ s. d. Dog-Iegged stairs at per story i 8 0 Bracket ditto per foot superficial o o 41 Ditto with clean steps o 0 5 Newels at per foot run o o 4 Strings at per foot superficial o 0 6 Ballusters per piece o o 3 If dove-tailed —> o 0 4 Geometry-stairs moulded underneath as the bracket, per foot o 0 9 Or per step —- o 10 6 Steps hung in she wall at per foot o 0 8 The string at per foot, if upon a circular or oval plan — o 1 6 There is a method of doing geometry-stairs without a string, although they be not moulded underneath the steps. This is done by mitring the bracket, and fixing it to the end of every step, before they are put up, and leaving them long e- nough to exceed the width of the under-side or the step, so as the succeeding one strall take and lay upon this, in regular form all the way to the top; after they are up, you may (hoot streight the under edge of the brackets, which will appear like the under edge of a string; also, when they are up, you may put up a fillet on the inside, which will bear the ends of the laths, and be a kind of stiffening to the brackets, or artificial string. These are much the cheapest of all stairs, and may be done to any plan, with a good appearance, by putting a neat astragal moulding to the lower edge, just under the nosings. The learner may observe, that those brackets need not be longer than what will be adequate to receive the furrings, and the laths and plaister. My The Universal British Builder. 225 My reader will excuse my making this digression. These sort os stairs I had omitted mentioning in their proper place ; however, I will cloak my neglect under the old proverb, that it is better late than never. These sorts of stairs are worth per foot, s. d. labour only, when hung in the wall o 74 Plain brackets to stairs per piece o 6 Circular ditto — 10 Mahogany hand-rails to stairs to circular plans, glued in thicknesses, at per foot fu- 7 o The cilinder, either done by day, or allowed per foot, the run of the circular part of the rail - All twists to scrolls Streight rail of mahogany Ramps double measure, or n 1 ' rail Shelves per foot — Linings of all forts — All plain linings to door-cases o 4 1 o 4 o o 3 a LECTURE LXI. Of Bricklayers Task-Work. T HE master to find all materials and £• s. d* scaffolding. Common brick-wOrk, per rod 1 3 O Camber arches, rumbed gauged and fet, per foot 060 Circular ditto o 7 0 E e Ditto 226 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, /. s. d. Ditto to a nitch per foot 036 A circular arch upon a circular plan double measure 010 Brick cornices per foot superficial 026 Plain tiling per square 050 Ditto pan-tiling pointed 050 LECTURE LXII. Of Plaisterers Task-Work. A L L ceilings per yard Ditto walls with three coats on laths Ditto two coats floated Walls floated per yard Stucco per yard All plain cornices per foot Ditto fully enriched Common block cornices per foot Dentil ditto s. d. 0 5 o 5 o 4 0 31 o 8 0 4J 1 0 o 8 o 7 LECTURE LXIIL Of Masons Task-Work. S Ometimes masons let their men to task-work, though it is but seldom ; I shall therefore mention two or three prices in particular cafes, and which may be a better method of calculation than what they generally go by in task-work. The masons method of taking work is by the piece in many jobbs, as frontispieces, &c. but I think it rather an irregular mode of proceeding) without one advantage to recommend it. Fron- The Universal British Builder. 227 Frontispieces of the Doric order, when done by the piece, maybe charged from 10I. to 12 guineas, according to the enrichments that are upon them ; but the best way is to measure them by the foot superficial, and value the different works after the fol- owing prices. The columns at per foot superficial o Bases and capitols per ditto 2 Fluting and cabling columns in Portland stone, the run of the flutes at per foot o All mouldings at per foot o Friefes to Doric cornices per foot 5 Mutules level at per piece 4 Raking ditto — 4 All the plain work per foot o Portland steps per foot run o Geometry ditto, and set off, per foot run o Paving with Portland stone, per 100 feet, from 5s. to --- 8 Purbeck in random-courfes per 100 _ 4 Old Purbeck taken up, new squared, and re-laid, at per 100 feet 3 Key and ashler fronts per foot o Holes cut for iron palisades per piece o d. 8 9 5 7 3 o o 6 5 7 8 o 6 9 4 1 i As there is seldom any other branches done taskwork, I beg my reader, when he hath other forts of work, and not above mentioned, he will have recourse to the other parts of the book, where the labour required is proved, and get as much as he can. 'mr* -rTsr-f , t:r-n|iir| , i' ~flT OS; ~>!> MM MZW ■?• C~ r : A TREATISE O F ARITHMETIC: Adapted to and proposed for Students in the BUILDING BRANCH. WMM Ci % J MM A TREATISE O F ARITHMETIC. LECTURE LXIV. INTRODUCTION. A rithmetic is a Greek word, and imports an art or science that teaches the use and properties of figures, or the right art of numbering and denoting any given quantity with proper characters and to express them by words which is called Notation. There are many kinds of notation by which quantity is expressed, but what I mean in this lecture to treat of, is figural, or the manner of expressing quantities by the ten Arabic characters, viz. i, 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o. Arithmetic is divided into three parts, two of which are properly called natural, and the third artificial : The first is that kind of Arithmetic which is called Vulgar, and which is the doctrine of whole numbers, and the most plain and easy, because every unit, 2Z2 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, unit, or one, (which is called an integer) denotes or signifies one intire thing, or quantity, of some kind of species ; as a stone, a rule, &c. The second, is the doctrine of broken quantities, or parts of units, or integers, which is called Vul- gar-fractions ; and wherein the unit, or integer, is divided into a number of even or uneven parts: as for example. If a foot be the given or proposed unit, or integer, and be divided into twelve inches, then one inch becomes a fraction or twelfth part; two inches one-sixth, three inches one-fourth part thereof. This part of arithmetic may be considered either as pure, consisting of fractional parts only, each less than an unit; as quarters, halves, &c. or of integers and fractional parts intermixed ; as one and a half; two and one third-part of one, &c. The third part which is called Artificial, is also called Decimal-arithmetic, which is an artificial method of working fractions and broken numbers, in a different and (by some thought) much easier than that of vulgar-fractions. Decimals took their name from the Latin Decem, or ten, into which every integer is supposed to be divided; and in many cafes every fub-division is subdivided again into ten lesser parts, &c. Suppose one foot in length to be an integer, or unit given, and let it be divided into ten equal parts, then we fay the foot is decimally divided; and if every tenth* part be decimally divided again in the like manner then the foot will be divided into one hundred parts* and is then said to be centesimally divided. LECTURE The Universal British Builder. 233 LECTURE LXV. Of Numeration. N umeration is accounted the first, part of A- rithmetic, and it is to know how to read a sum of figures expressed in writing ; or to write down any sum to be expressed; to the doing of which there are four things necessary; first to know the number which is nine ; secondly their shapes which : are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7, 8, g, of which the first toward the left hand ever signisieth one ; the second two, the third three, &c. thirdly to know the value oftheir places; lastly, how their proper signification is attained thereby. The value of their places is thus: when two, three, or more figures stand in one sum, that is, without any point, line, or comma betwixt them, as 321, that place next the right-hand where the figure 1 standeth, is called the place of unity, or units, and the figure 1 standeth in that place for 1 only, and the figure 2, when it is found in that first place, stands only for 2, and so of all the rest. But in the sum 321, above expressed, the figure 2 in the second place, and every place contains the value of that place before towards the right hand ' ten times ; therefore the figure 2 doth not in this second place signify 2, but ten times 2, that is, 20 ; and so the figure or 3, if it had been in that second dace would have signified ten times 3, that is, 30, being here in the third place, it signifies ten times 30, that is, 300, and so the whole sum 321 is to be read three hundred and twenty one. It is hereby seen how their proper significations, which were three, two, and one, are altered by F f being 234 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, being thus placed, and the sum, which would but have been six, is three hundred twenty and one. In like sort, if there had been more places, as seven, the value is quite through increased ten times, by being a place more towards the left hand, as in the sum 1111111; the figure 1 in the second place stands for ten times one, that is, ten; in the third for ten times ten, which is one hundred ; in the fourth for ten hundred, which is called a thousand; in the fifth for ten thousand; in the sixth for ten times ten thousand, which is an hundred thousand ; in the last, or seventh place, for ten hundred thousand, which is called a million ; and so on, if there were more places. Observe the same order to infinity, beyond all earthly value. Now, to read this readily, make a prick over the place of unity ; another the third from it, and over every third, still towards the left-hand; for so those points will be over the places of units, thousands, and millions ; and so beginning at the last figure that is at the left hand, read one million, and because the three following towards the right signify properly one hundred and eleven, but the prick belonging to them laying in the place of thousands, call one hundred and eleven thousand ; and the three remaining being under the point over unity, signify only one hundred and eleven ; and all three points, read together in one sum, make one million one hundred and eleven thousand one hundred and eleven. In like manner, if this number 87654352, were given to be read (according to the former direction) make pricks over every third figure, beginning with the first figure towards the right hand, (which is The Universal British Builder. 2 35 is the place of unity) and then will your number stand thus 87654352 ; then for the ready reading of them, (because the third prick signifies millions) call all the figures towards the left hand from that prick, millions, which in the example are 8 and 7, begin and fay 87 millions 654 thousand 352, which at length, are eighty seven millions six hundred and fifty four thousand three hundred and fifty two ; and so any other number in like manner. , LECTURE LXVI. Of Addition. A Ddition is the gathering or collecting of two or more sums, either of one or of divers denominators, into one sum, which is called the aggregate, total, or gross sum. In addition of numbers of one denomination, the order is to set the numbers to be added, one directly under the other; I that is to fay, units under units, tens under tens, hundreds under hundreds, thousands under thousands. RULE. ' Having placed your numbers to be added in due order one under another, draw a line under them, and begin at the lowermost figure towards your fight hand, and add that to the next figure above, and the sum of them to the next figure above that, proceeding in this order till you have added the line together; which when done, consider how many tens are contained in that line; and for every ten carry one to the next column ; but if there are any odd digits, you must set them down beneath the F f 2 stroke, 236 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, strke, just under the line you have added together; having thus finistted the addition of one line, proceed to the next; and from thence to the third, and so forward be there never so many. The following will make this plain. Example the Firs, of whole Numbers. Let the several sums given to be added be 9874, 6436, 1423, 6788; having thus placed them under one another, as in the margin is done, draw a line under them; then begin your addition at the lowermost figure to the right hand, fay 8 and 3 is eleven, and 6 is seventeen, and 4 is twenty- one, there is 2 tens and 1 remaining, I place the 1 under the line, and carry the 9 S 74 6436 1423 6788 24521 two tens to the next row, saying 2 which I carry and 8 is ten, and 2 is twelve, and 3 is fifteen, and 7 is twenty-two, in which row there is two tens to carry, and 2 remains which I place as before; again proceed to the next column, saying 2 and 7 is nine, and 4 is thirteen, and 4 is seventeen, and 8 is twenty-five, set down five and carry two again to the next, saying, two I carry and 6 is eight, and 1 is nine, and 6 is fifteen, and g is twenty-four, which set down under the margin ; so the aggregate or gross sum is twenty-four thousand five hundred and twenty-one. In the addition of divers denominations, this is to be observed, viz. place all the numbers of the fame denomination one directly under another, as inches under inches, feet under feet, yards under yards, squares under squares ; then draw a line under them, and begin your addition with the smallest number or least denomination first, always observing m is 01 te th ca I cc | ni T‘ fa as ac fh d< fe si: 9 ca 7 m na fa dc 3 The Universal British Builder. 237 ing how many times the next greater denomination is continued in that least ; and for every time carry one unit to the next place, as before you did the tens, taking care to let down the remains if any be - then add the next denomination together, taking care how often the next greater denomination is contained in that, and so proceed be they ever so many, from parts to inches, inches to feet, feet to yards, yards to squares, rods, poles, or perches. As all the parts of addition are built upon the fame reason, so the method of pointing may serve as a general rule, when any denomination is to be added, and this may be done without defacing the figures. EXAMPLES. Let the several denominations to be added be set down as in the margin, suppose the work of different rooms done be as follows : Yds. Ft. In. To dado on the ground floor 127 7 6 To ditto one pair of stairs 162 5 3 2 9 ° 3 9 I Proceed and begin at the inches, faying, 3 and fix is 9, which I write under the incites, and as 9 inches is less than a foot, you have nothing to carry to the next depomination, but fay 5 and 7 is twelve ; now, as 9 square feet are a yard, you must set the remainder three under the denomination of feet, and carry one to the next column, saying, 1 and 6 is seven, and 2 is nine, which set down and fay 1 and 1 is 2, which makes 290 yards 3 feet 9 inches. A fur- 238 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, A surveyor having measured and squared the different dimensions of brick-work, set them down for addition as follows: Rods Ft. To foundations, vaults, 8cc. 6 5° The several walls in the first story 9 80 Ditto to the second 8 43 Attic-story -- 6 84 Gable-ends and chimnies 1 *9 31 4 My reader must observe that a rod of brick-work is 272 and z, therefore must prick at 272 feet; if not so much, set down the remains of feet, and add up the rods, and these examples may serve for every thing else of whatever denomination. Addition of Feet and Inches. Ft. 53 42 82 Note, for every 12 inches carry one to the feet. 178 10 Addition of Yards, Feet, and Inches. Yds'. Ft. In."] Note, as nine feet are a 12 9 4 I yard, so at every nine 7 4 3 I feet you must carry 1 to 13 6 2 J the yard as in the ex- ample. 33 7 9 Addition The Universal British Builder. 2Z9 Addition of Lime and Sand. Example the First, os Lime. Hun. Bags. Collect into one s 3 14 1 R “ Ie > for cver y 2 5 sum these several I 4 06' I t0 U d? hundred quantities of lime, j 5 12 I which add as in-, viz. l_ 3 13 J te S ers> 16 20 Note, twenty-five bags, which ought each to be a bushel, is accounted one hundred 01 lime in London ; and in many countries 30 bushels is called a load. Of Sand. Collect into one sum these several quantities of sand. Loads s 27 26 29 16 Bushels 04 1 Rule, for every 18 S bushels carry one to y the loads, and add 12 j them, as whole num- l8 J bers. IOO 13 Note, a load of sand is 18 heaped bushels. Addition of Bricks. Note, 500 bricks are a load, add these several quantities into one sum, viz. Loads Bricks s 2 148 ] J 6 1 93 I 1 4 °5° j I 7 240 j 20 131 Rule, for every 501* carry one to the loads, and add them as whole numbers. Of 240 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, Os Timber and Planks. Yds. Collect into one sum the several quantities, viz. Ft. 33 1 40 ( 23 s 12 j For every 50 cany one to the loads, and add them as whole numbers. 26 08 Note, 50 feet solid make one load. Of Solid Yards. Yds. 7 2 6 4 Ft. 04 22 3 5 J 3. > Note, for every 27 carry one to the yards. 21 OO Having done so much of addition, I shall conclude the lecture with this observation, that one load of earth is one solid yard. A hundred weight of lead, nails, iron, &c. is is 112 pounds ; a hundred weight of deals or nails six score or 120 Ib. A bundle of five feet laths 100, and of 4 feet ditto 120, which should be 1 inch and j broad, as it is expected a bundle of laths of whatever length is to cover the fame ; for what is wanting in length is made up in number. 0 ai to ya lecture The Universal British Builder. 4 1 . LECTURE LXVII. SUBTRACTION O/F eet, Inches, and Parts. Ft. In. qr. Ft. In. qr. From 274 7 2 364 2 4 Take 153 5 1 173 8 4 121 2 1 190 6 o Note, that in inches you borrow twelve. Subtraction of Yards, Feet, and long Inches. Yds. Ft. In. 40 7 6 32 4 2 Yds. Ft. In. 23 2 6 13 4 7 08 3 4 09 o 11 Note, as you borrow 12 at the inches, and carry one to the feet, so you borrow 3 at the feet and carry 1 to the yards. Subtraction ofsquare Yards and square Feet. Yds. Ft. Yds. Ft 47 5 82 7 36 9 43 8 10 5 38 8 Note, here at the feet you borrow 9 and carry one to the yards, because 9 fquare-feet makes a fquare- yard. Gg Sub- 242 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, SjibtraBion of solid yards. Yds. Ft. Yds. Ft. 55 17 78 18 43 29 53 20 10 15 24 25 Here, as 27 feet is a yard solid, so you borrow 27 at feet, and carry 1 to the yards. Of squares of flooring, &c. Square feet, 94 11 13 72 Square feet, 26 04 19 40 80 39 06 64 Here, as 100 square feet make one square, so at the feet you borrow iqo, and carry 1 to the square. 1 As there is nothing more in subtraction to be observed than the denominations of which you borrow, I shall think these examples sufficient, and proceed to multiplication. lecture The Universal British Builder, 243 LECTURE LXVIII. Os Multiplication. 'Ultiplication is that part of arithmetic 1- which teacheth how to increase one number by another, so that the number produced by their multiplication shall contain one of tile numbers multiplied, so many times as there are units contained in the other. Multiplication may fitly be termed a Compendium of addition, for that it performeth at one operation the same which to effect by addition would require many. For instance : If it were to know how many 4 times 8 is, to perform this by addition I must set sour figures of 8 one under another, and by adding them together I shall find that the total will contain 32. But this by multiplication is with far more brevity, as by examples hereafter shall appear. Before you enter upon the practice of multiplication, it is necessary to remember the product arising by the multiplication of any of the nine digits by any other or the same, as readily to know that 3 times 4 are 12, 6 times y are 42, 8 times 8 are 64, &c. &c. In multiplication it is necessary to know the product of any two of the nine digits or figures; for ■which purpose the following table must be studied till you have it by heart. Gg 2 Multi- 244 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Multiplication Table. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 5 lO 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 6 12 l8 24 3 ° 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108 to 20 30 40 50 §0 70 80 9 o 100 110 120 u 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 no 121 132 12 24 co co 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 1 Z2 144 In multiplication there are three things or terms to be observed, that is to fay, the multiplicand, the multiplier or multiplicator, and the product. The multiplicand is the number to be multiplied. The multiplier is the number by which the multiplicand is multiplied. And The product is the number which is produced by tse multiplication of the multiplicator and multiplicand together: Thus f The Universal British Builder. 245 If it were required to multiply 9 by 6, here g is the multiplicand and 6 the multiplier, and these- numbers multiplied make 54, which is the product ; for 6 times 9 is 54, or 9 times 6 the same. In multiplication it matters not which of the two numbers is the multiplicand, or which the multiplier, for the product produced by either will be the same. But the common way is to make the greater number the multiplicand, and the lesser the multiplier. R U L E I. The numbers to be multiplied must be set one under another, viz. the multiplicand (or greater number) above, and the multiplier (or lesser number) below ; the last number of the multiplier under the last figure of the multiplicand; then draw a ^ line under them, and having learnt the preceding table by rote, multiply every number of the multiplier into every number of the multiplicand, and set the several products under the line ; then having finished your multiplication, draw a line at the bottom, and add all the products together, and the sum of these products will be the general product, as by the following examples will appear. Exaviple the Firji. Let it be required to multiply 872 by 6 ; first, I write down 872, the multiplicand ; and under it 6 , the multiplier; then under them I draw a line as in the margin ; then I multiply 6 into 872 every digit of the multiplicand, saying 6 6 times 2 are twelve ; place 2 under the line -- directly under the 6 , and for the ten keep 5232 one 246 A Key to Cixil Architecture : Or, one in your mind to carry to the next figure ; then I say 6 times 7 are 42, and one I carry makes 44 ; then set down 3, and keep 4 in your mind for the four tens to carry to the next, saying, 6 times 8 are 48, and 4 I carry make 52, which set down, and the work is done ; and the product is 5232. Example the Second. Let it be required to multiply 5753 by 24; set them down as before, and proceed in the same manner, saying, 4 times 3 are 12, 5753 place 2 under the 4, and carry 1 ; 4 24 times 5 are 20, and 1 I carry makes 21 ; - set down 1, and carry 2 ; then 4 times 7 23012 are 28, and 2 I carry make 30; set down 11506 o and carry 3 ; then 4 times 5 are 20, and -- 3 I carry make 23, which set down also ; 138072 then begin with the 2, saying, 2 times 3 are 6, which place under 1; then 2 times 5 are 10, set down an o, and carry 1 ; and 2 times 7 are 14, and 1 I carry makes 15 ; set down 5, and carry 1 still : then 2 times 5 are ten, and 1 I carry makes 11, which finishes both the digits. This done, I draw a line under them, and add the two sums together, which make 138072 as in the margin. Examples for PraElice. 43672 7643215, 87462 200 4003 too 8734400 22929645 8746200 . 29572860 29595789645 In The Universal British Builder. 247 In the first example I have contracted my work by placing the 2 of the multiplier under the unit of the multiplicand, which should always be done when the other figures to the right hand are all cyphers. In the second I made a contrast by omitting the cyphers in the multiplier, and multiplying only by the 3 and 4 ; but when this is done, you must be careful to set down the first figure of your remains directly under the place of your multiplier. In the third example I have contracted my work by adding the number of cyphers in the multiplier to the multiplicand for the product, because one neither multiplies nor divides. Examples for PraEiice , Multiplication of integers may be performed without giving any trouble to the mind, by carrying on the tens as in the first examples shewn. Mind the operation. Multiply 97643 by 4, as in the margin ; 97643 fay 4 times 3 is 12, set down 12, as is ob- 4 served in the example; then 4 times 4 is -- 16, set 1 at top next the 12 to the left hand, 322112 and 6 at the bottom under the second 6846 figure in the multiplicand ; then 4 times 6 - : —> is 24, which set down, 2 at the top and 390572 4 at the bottom ; then 4 times 7 is 28, which set down as the rest ; then 4 times 9 is 36, which set down as before, and add the two sums together, and you will have the true product required. And this example will serve, let the multiplier consist of any number of figures whatsoever. More 248 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, More Examples for PraSlice. Let 53568 be multiplied by 24, as under. 53568 24 Multiply 83647 b ) 7 33 - 83647 33 212232 0204 101116 0602 201121 4982 201121 4982 1285632 2760351 Note, these examples are the same as the first, only twice repeated ; observe, when the product of any figure is less than ten, place a cypher before it to the left as below, by the product of 2 in the first figure; if after it is less than 10, set the product at the bottom, and a cypher at the top. See the operation. /8492 ' ' 82 In order to prove, this observe the operation by the common way. 78492 82 110104 156984 4688 627936 563716 6422 6436344 6436344 The Universal British Builder. 249 As I have thus finished the multiplication os integers, you must obserye that therein is this analogy, viz. as an unit is to the multiplier, so is the multiplicand to the product; for supposing one load of rough timber costs 40 shillings- now much will 10 loads cost ? RULE. If 10 load be multiplied by 40 shillings, the product 400 shillings, as in the margin, being considered as an unit, bears the fame proportion to 40 shillings, the multiplier, as 10 loads, the multiplicand, doth to 400 shillings the product. LECTURE LXIX. Of Multiplication os Decimals* I Will not in this place treat upon the peculiar excellencies or antiquity of this fort of arithmetic, but immediately proceed to a few examples, and then finish my treatise on multiplication with duodecimals, or what is vulgarly called crofs- tnultiplication with aliquot parts. Multiplication of decimals, both in placing the multiplicand and multiplier, is the fame as multiplication of integers, only when your work is done, you must observe, that with a dash of your pen, you cut off as many places of decimals in your product, as there are places of decimals both in your multiplicand and multiplier; and in cafe of want in your product, prefix cyphers to your left hand. It may be well to observe, that it will be convenient to make that number the multiplicand which H h contains 10 - 40 400 LZo A Key to Civil Architecture : Oi*, contains the most places, though sometimes it may perhaps be less in quantity t secondly, that if the multiplicand and multiplier be both decimals, that is, be both parts of integers, the product will be decimals; thirdly, if the multiplicand and multiplier be mixed, that is, integers and decimal parts of integers, the product will be mixed ; and, lastly, if the multiplicand and multiplier be mixed, and the other is a decimal, the product will be sometimes mixed, and sometimes a decimal. Example i. Of Decimals alone. •5764 wZ2 11528 17292 40348 .4219248 Example 2. Of Integers and Decimals. 4.3625 2.13 130875 43625 8725O 9.292125 Example 3. Multiplicand mixed. Multiplier a Decimal, 27.5462 •234 1IO1848 826386 550924 6.4468108 In example the 1 st, of decimals alone, the product is .4219248 parts of an integer divided into 10,000,000, because the denominator of every decimal consists of as many places of cyphers annexed to 1, as there are places in the decimals. In example the 2d, there being 6 decimal places in the multiplicand, I have therefore cut off 6 places of figures from the product, and the product is 9 integers, and 292125 parts of an integer divided into 10,000,000, parts. In example the 3d, I have cut off 7 places of decimals, 4 in the multiplicand, and 3 in the multiplier, The Universal British Builder. 251 plier, and. the product is 6 integers 4468108 parts of an integer divided into 10,000,000 parts. LECTURE LXX. Of Duodecimals, or what is vulgarly called Cross-Multiplication. A S in decimal-multiplication the integer is divided into 10 parts, so here in duodecimals it is divided into 12 parts, as a foot into 12 inches, or a shilling into 12 pence ; in the following example I suppose the integers to be feet and the decimals inches ; this kind of multiplication may be performed as well by taking the aliquot, or even parts of 12, out of the multiplicand, (as will be immediately shewn) as by multiplying the multiplier into the multiplicand ; but before I proceed to practice, observe, that the aliquot (which are the even) parts of a foot, are as follow, viz. in 12 there are 6, which is the half of a foot, and must be so taken in the example ; three times 4, four times 3, fix times 2 ; eight times 1 h ; and twelve times 1. In this kind of multiplication there is a great variety ; and as I think it the most familiar, concise, and easy rule extant, for measuring, I shall give various examples for practice, and leave my reader to take which he most approves himself; but before we begin, observe the following table. When the multiplier is multiplied into the multiplicand, note, Feet multiplied by feet, give feet. Feet multiplied by inches, give inches. Feet multiplied by seconds, give seconds. Inches multiplied by inches, give seconds. Inches multiplied by seconds, give thirds. Seconds multiplied by seconds, give fourths. H h 2 Example 2H2 A. Key to Civil Architecture: Or, Example First. Here I multiply the 6 st. and 3 in. by 4 st. 4 in. (which gives feet and inches for the product) saying 4 times 3 is Ft. In. twelve, set o under the inches, and 6 3 carry one to the feet; then 444 times 6 is 24, and one I carry ---- makes 2H, which set down as in 25 o the margin; next I multiply 6 feet 2 1 3 inches by four inches, saying, 4 —.—— -- times 3 is twelve, which I set down 2710 under the place of seconds, or parts, as observed in the table, and carry one to the inches, faying, 4 times 6 is 24, and one I carry is 25, which are 2 feet 1 inch, which set down as in the example. Pts. o o —k 0 0 Example Second. Example Third. Example Fourth, Ft. In. Pts. Ft. In. Pts. Ft. In. Pts. 9 7 0 4 6 0 8 3 6 0 0 6 3 0 6 4 0 6 2 4 0 0 57 6 0 27 0 0 49 9 0 0 0 2 4 9 1 6 0 1 4 7 0 0 $9 10 9 28 6 0 0 2 11 2 0 O The ' S- 4 6 s The Universal British Builder. 253 The following examples are another method of multiplying feet, inches, and parts, by multiplying the multiplier into the multiplicand. Ft. In. Pts. Ft. In. Pts. Ft. In. Pts. 16 46 864 , 943 o 4 in. o 6 in. 07 in. 5 5 6 4 51 ° 2 o 5 5 5 .9 I hele examples may be uied when you want to multiply feet, inches, and parts, by inches ; or any aliquot part of a foot, as, in the above examples, which are 16 feet, 4 inches, and 6 parts, multiplied by 4 inches by placing the multiplier one place farther to the right hand, and then multiplying as in whole numbers; the second and third example are the same. To multiply Feet and Inches by taking the aliquot Parts. Now, supposing your dimension of several rooms of mouldings, or any thing that is measured by feet and inches, as in the mar- Ft. In. gin; 283 feet 6 inches by 26 feet 6 in- 263 6 dies; it would be too much for the head 26 6 to fay 26 times 6, as in the first exam- ---- pies; therefore I multiply the feet into 1578 o the feet first, saying, 6 times 3 is 18, 52 6 o set down 8 and carry one as in whole 131 9 numbers; and 6 times 6 is 36 and 13 o one I carry is 37, set down 7 and carry---- three ; then 6 times 2 is 12 and 3 I car- 6983 9 st' is 15, which set down; then begin with the 2, fay, 2 times 3 is 6, which set down under 254 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, der the multiplier as in whole numbers ; 2 times 6 is 12, set down 2 and carry one ; then 2 times 2 is 4 and one I carry is 5* which is the whole. Now as they are multiplied into themselves, instead of multiplying the feet and inches take the aliquot part of a foot for the inches, which in this example are the half, being 6 inches, faying, the half of 2 is one, which set down directly under the figure you so divide, and the remains, when there are any, carry to the next inferior part, as from feet to inches, inches to parts, &c. and for every integer so remaining must be reckoned as 12 from feet to inches, and the like from inches to parts, &c. But to proceed, I have said the half of 2 is one, then the half of 6 is 3, and the half of 3 is 1, and one remains, which I carry to the inches, and call it twelve, which added to the 6 inches in the multiplicand makes 18; then I fay the half of 18 is g, which I set down under the inches, and proceed to take half of the multiplier 26 feet by 6 inches, in the multiplicand, which has not as yet been considered, saying, as before the half of 2 is 1, and the half of 6 is 3 ; my reader will observe, that the 6 inches in the multiplier was before taken, therefore place the several sums in proper order as in the margin, and add them together, which makes for the product 6983 feet 9 inches. It matters not whether feet be first multiplied, or aliquot parts taken, so their respective products be all duly added together. Example. The Universal British Builder. 2 55 Example. Ft. In. 345 3 1 6 4 2070 o 345 ° 0 0115 1 0004 1 Example . Ft. In. 946 6 44 2 3784 o Z7840 o 00141 1 00022 o 41787 Example. Ft. In. Pts. 433 6 o 23 7 o 1299 o o 8660 o o 0144 6 o 0108 4 6 0011 6 o 10223 4 6 The above examples will, I hope, be plain enough by inspection and needs no more than this observation, that if the aliquot part be 11 feet 9 inches or 7 inches, I take them at twice as in the last example of 7, which I took at 3 and 4, being both aliquot parts of a foot as before-menti- oned. To multiply feet, inches, and parts, by feet, inches and parts, when the feet in the multiplicand i and multiplier do not exceed twenty. RULE. First, place the feet of the multiplier under the parts of the multiplicand, and the inches and parts to the right hand, and proceed to multiply as in whole numbers; only with this difference, carrying 12 for the remains. See the examples: Ft. In. 256 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Ft. In. Pts. 864 632 1 508 2 o 70 51 2 00 Ft. In. Pts. 12 6 4 3 6 4 4 214 6 320 37 7 o 53. 4 208 44 4 4 1 4 Having thus given you various examples of feet, inches, and parts; I lhall observe, that these being well understood will make the mensuration of either superficies or solids easy and delightful to every capacity. As some works are measured by the yard and feet, I {hall just give a little instruction in this fort of measurement, and proceed to division. Multiplication of yards and feet. Observe, that yards multiplied by yards produce yards ; yards multiplied into feet, every 3 is a yard, and the remains more than three are long feet; what I mean by long feet, is, 3 feet in length, and 1 broad. Feet multiplied by feet produce parts of a foot; which are square feet, 3 of which make a long foot. Yds. Ft. See the example in the margin. 463 2 First, the yards being multiplied as 223 1 integers, proceed to take the feet, which --— I do thus, as one foot is one third of a 1389 yard as aforesaid, I take the thirds of 926 463 yards 2 feet, which is 154 yards 1 92 6 foot/as atB ; secondly, as 2 feet are two B 154 1 thirds of a yard, I take the third twice C 74 of 223 yards, which is 74 each, and place D 74 them as in the margin ; and add them all-- together you will have the true product 9355 1 1 which is 93551 yards, 1 foot. The Universal British Builder. 257 LECTURE LXXI. Of Division. D ivision is quite the contrary to multiplication, for that turns small denominations into greater, but division turns greater to smaller, and therefore is no more than a compendium of subtraction; for as many times as the divisor can be subtracted out of the dividend, so many units are in the quotient. In whole numbers, of which only I shall yet speak, Division is the asking, how many times one sum is contained in another; and the number which an- swereth to that question is called the quotient; 2dly, the number containing is called the dividend ; qdly, the number contained, or by which the dividend is to be divided, is called the divisor; and as often as the dividend contains the divisor, so often doth the quotient contain unity; so that as multiplication is a compendium of many additions, so division is a compendium of many subtractions. There are many ways by which this difficult rule of division may be wrought, but some much easier than others to be performed; therefore, as ease and perspecuity are the fundamental principles on which I build all my designs, I shall endeavour, in this as well as every other lecture, rather to instruct the ignorant, than point out new modes and studied maxims, to acquire the self-praise of the already accomplished. Division in general is performed by this analogy ; as the divisor is to 1, so is the dividend to the quotient; which I shall illustrate by the following examples. I i Example 258 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, Example the First. ABC If it is required to divide a floor too [ 436 [ 4 which contains436 feetinto squares, 400 as one square contains too square --— feet, place them as in the margin; 36 436, the dividend as at B; then = making a division, place it at 100, as at A; then make another, and placing it as at C, seek how often too is contained in 436 feet, which is 4 times: set down 4 as at C, for the quotient; multiply the 100 that is the divisor by the quotient 4, saying 4 times o is note ; which place under the 6, and fay 4 times o is note again, and place an o under the 3, then fay 4 times 1 is 4, which place under the 4 as in the example ; then make a line at the bottom of these numbers, and subtract from the dividend, saying; o from 6, and there remains 6; o from 3 and the remains are 3 ; and 4 from 4 you cannot, which leaves 36 remains ; which are feet, as in the margin ; so the work is 4 square and 36 feet. And in like manner is all division of whole numbers wrought; at least my method is so. Example the Second. Let 675 feet of dado, wainscot, or any other superficial work, that is measured by the yard, be brought into yards ; therefore as 9 square feet is a yard, we divide by 9 J 675 f 75 9; place them as in the margin, and 63 proceed as before; seek how often 9 -—>—' can be had in 67 ; "why 7 times, 45 which is 63 ; place down this under 45 67, then making a line under them -—* subtract as before, saying, 3 from 7 00 and there remains 4, which place in ^ the The Universal BrItiSh BuildeiS. 259 the margin aster this, bring down the 5, and place it next the 4 to the right hand, which makes 45 for a new dividend ; then seek how often 9 can be had in 45 ; 5 times 9 is 45, which place under 45, the new dividend, and mbtract as before, and your work is done, which is just 75 yards. Note, If the dividend consist of eight or ten figures, you must still proceed till you have brought down all the figures in the dividend, as in the two foregoing examples. But fee the following. Let it be required to divide 876543 by 647. EXAM 49 ! 564987 j 11530 49 74 49 2 59 24 5 148 147 17 647 j $76543 I 1353 647 22 95 1941 3544 333 5 2093 1941 15? LECTURE 26a A Key to Civil Architecture : Or- LECTURE LXXII. Of Contractions in Division. W HEN the divisor is 10, 100, 1000, or 10000, cut from the dividend the fame number of figures to the right hand as there are cyphers in the divisor; and the figures remaining to the left are the quotient required; so 6784 divided by 10, I cut off one figure to 1,0 j 678 [ 4 the right hand as in the margin, and - the quotient is 678, and 4-tenths the remains. And if 984367 square feet was to be brought into squares, or di- 100 J 9843 { 67 vided by 100, I only cut off 2 - figures to the right of the dividend, as in the margin, and the work is done, which is nine thousand eight hundred and forty-three squares and sixty-feven feet. But fee these examples by the common way. Example 1. Example 2. 10 J 6784 J 678 60 100 | 984367 j 9843 78 843 70 800 436 400 4 367 300 67 And so of iooo, and also of 10,000. The The Universal British Builder. 261 ' The way to prove division is to add all the pro- ! ducts resulting in the whole work together, in the same order as they stand in the work; the sum of them (adding the last remainder, if any there be) shall be equal to the dividend. Or this way; multiply the quotient by the divisor, and to the product add the remains if any, and if your work is true, it will be the same as the dividend. LECTURE L XXIII Division of Decimals. S division of whole numbers is the hardest of xjL the four species of vulgar arithmetic, so the division of decimals is the most difficult of the four kinds of decimal arithmetic ; but in this, as in the rest of my undertakings, I shall endeavour to make it plain, easy, and familiar to the weakest capacity. The general varieties that happen in division of decimals are principally the following; first, to divide whole numbers and fractions; secondly, to divide whole numbers by rriixt, or mixt numbers by whole; thirdly, to divide a greater fraction by a less; and lastly, to divide a lesser fraction by a greater. Division of decimals is performed in every respect as whole numbers ; only there is some difficulty in discovering the true value of the quotient; the following is a general rule. The places of decimal parts in the divisor,, and quotient, being accounted together, must always be equal in number with those in the dividend; and therefore as many figures as are cut off in the dividend, so many must be cut off in the divisor and quotient. Or thus ; cut off as many figures in the quotient as will make those cut off in the divisor 262 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, equal to those in the quotient; with this observation, that if there be not so many in the quotient, to add cyphers to the left hand, and also, that if your dividend be an integer, or have less cut off than is in the divisor, to add cyphers to the dividend, till they are equal; this general rule admits of four cafes. CASE I. ’ Example. Where the places of 45.326 j 5642.435 [ 124 decimal parts in the divi- 45.3026 for and dividend are both --- equal in number, as in the example in the margin, where both divisor and dividend are mixed numbers, then the quotient will be all whole numbers. CAS Divide 6458.271 by 73, as in the margin; ere the dividend is a mixed number, and the divisors are integers,and as here are three decimals in the dividend, and none in the divisor, therefore cut off 270 the last 3 figures in the quotient, and the quotient will be 11.27. 11 0083 9 V652 203315 1 81304 22011 E II. 573 I 6458.271. 1 11.27 573 . 728 573 ' 55 % 1140 4067 4011 . 56 C A S t The Universal British Builder. 2S3 CASE III. 8400 648 1920 1894 126 Divide .84 by .0324, as in the .0324 { . 840O j 26 margin ; here the dividend is whole numbers, and the divisor a decimal; and seeing that 84 the dividend consists but of two places, I therefore add two cyphers to it, making it 8400, thereby both dividend and divisor may be made fractions ; and by their being both of equal number of places by cafe the first, the quotient is integers; when there are not so many places of decimal parts in the dividend as there are in the divisor, then annex cyphers to the dividend to make them equal, and the quotient will be all whole numbers as in cafe the first. CASE IV. Divide 4653 by 645, as in 645 ] 4655000 { 612 the margin ; now, here the 3870 dividend being integers, and -- the divisor a decimal, to 7830 bring out integers in the quo- 7710 tient I add 3 cyphers to 4653, --- the dividend, and the quotient 120 P412, and 120 remains ; but tfj after the division is finished, there are not so many figures in the quotient as there ought to be places of decimal parts by the general rule, then supply the defect by prefixing cyphers before the figures Produced in the quotient, as, for example; divide 521563 by 24, now here the dividend is a decimal, 264 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, mal, and the divisors are integers, whose quotient is * 17545 ’ b ut as there are places in the dividend, 24 } .421543 { *017545 and but 5 in the quotient, 24 therefore according to the -- general rule I prefix a cy- 181 pher before the quotient 168 27545-st^ingit.017545, - which is the true quoti- 135 ent required. 120 156 144 123 120 _3 From the preceding examples it may be ob- I served, first, that when the dividend is superior to j the divisor, the quotient is either integers, or decimals and integers ; and lastly, that when the divisor is superior to the dividend, the quotient is a decimal; and which, in both cafes, holds good m other examples. I LECTURE LXXIV. Of Reduction, Eduction is nothing more than a two-foW _ composition of multiplication and division, for the use of changing a quantity out of one denomination into another, as less into greater by multiplication; or, greater into less by division, flS R The Universal British Builder. 265 as for example; if it were required to know how many superficial inches were contained in 7264 feet, this is the rule ; multiply the feet by the number of inches in a superficial foot, and the product is the content required. EXAMPLE. 7264 144 29056 29056 7264. 1046016 In 1046016 inches how many square feet ? Now to bring this to its former state, you must divide by U4- 144 I 1046016 [ 7264 1008 380 288 921 864 000 As there is no other difficulty in this rule but observing the denomination to which you are to reduce the given sum or quantity, I shall not trouble niy reader with any more examples of this fort, but K k con- §66 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, conclude with the following observation, that when you would reduce squares, rods, yards, feet, or any other denomination, find out the two quantities, and the one reduce by division, the other by multiplication. EXAMPLE. To reduce squares into feet, multiply the number of squares by too, the number of square feet in a square, and the product will be feet; and to reduce feet into squares divide by too, and the quotient will be squares : to reduce yards into feet, multiply the yards by 9, the square feet in a yard will be the number or feet; and to reduce feet into yards, divide by 9; to reduce loads of timber to solid feet, multiply the loads by 50, the solid feet in a load of timber, and the product will be the contents ; and to reduce solid feet into loads, divide by 50, the quotient is the load; and so of any thing else, whether money or measurement; but this rule is so obvious, that it needs no more instructions. I shall therefore proceed to the golden rule; or, rule of three in whole numbers. LECTURE LXXV. The Goldeh Rule : Or, Rule of Three Direct. T HIS is one of the most useful and most simple rules in arithmetic, and for its uncommon utility deserves a golden name; its use is when there , are three numbers given to find a fourth, which shall have the same proportion with them as they have one to another; and is therefore properly called the The Universal British Builder. 267 the rule of proportion. This rule is direct, indirect, and compound. First, The single rule of three direct, finds a fourth number in such proportion to the third, as the second is to the first; or, as the second is to the first, so is the third to the fourth. But 4 numbers are in proportion, and called proportional, when as the first is to the third, so is the second to the fourth ; as, if there were given 2, 3, and 4, to find a fourth, which may be to 3, as 4 is to 2, that is, double, and that fourth number is 6 ; and this is called the proportion direct ; and the rule whereby it is done, the direct rule. There is also another proportion which is called reciprocal; which is, when as the first is to the third, so is the fourth to the second ; as 3, 4, 6, and 2, and is called the rule of three reverse ; by direct proportion, the product of the two middle numbers multiplied together is always equal to the product of the first and last multiplied together, which serves not only as a proof, but as a ground of the rule, which rule shall here follow. RULE. Multiply the second term or number by the third, and divide the product by the first, the quotient fliall be the fourth number required. EXAMPLE. Let the three numbers given be 2, 6, 3 ; multiply 6 by 3, the product is 18; then divide 18 by 2, the quotient is 9, which is the fourth number in, proportion with 2, 6 , and 3; for as 2 is to 3, so 3 times 2, which is 6, is to 3 times 3, which is 9 ; K k 2 and 268 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, and so the product 18 divided by 2, and the quotient 9, causeth that the product of 2 into 9 shall be also 18 ; and consequently, if 2 be the first of the four proportional numbers, and 6 and 3 the two middlemost, then 9 is the last. RULE. To know when to use the direct or the reverse rule, consider if more require more, or less require still less, then use the direct rule: but if more require less, or less more, then use the reverse rule. But this will be easily understood when we come to example. EXAMPLE I. If the diameter of one circle be 7, and its circumference 22, what is the circumference of another circle whose diameter is 14 P First, place your numbers as 7 : 22:114 : 44 in the margin ; secondly, multi- 22 ply 14, the third number, by 22, —■ the second number; and divide 28 their product 308 by 7, the first 28 number; the quotient 44 is the -■ fourth number, and the true an- 7 J 308 J 44 fwer required. 28 28 28 00 When The Universal British Builder. 269 When the fourth number is thus found, place it next after the third number, with two dots of separation between them. The fame kind of separation must be observed between the first and second; between the third place 4 dots. These points of fe- is to so is to paration bear this analogy, as 7 : 22 : : 14 : 44. The points are to express the words as they are placed above them. EXAMPLE II. If the circumference of a circle be 22, whose diameter is 7, what is the diameter of another circle whose circumference is 44 ? Here the nature of the question requires the two first numbers to be placed the reverse of the foregoing example; for as there the ourth number required was the 22 : 7 t 44 I circumference of a circle, so here on the contrary the diameter of a circle is required ; but the manner of working, by multiplying the third number by the second, and dividing by the first, is the fame here as before, as is seen in the margin, where the quotient 14 is the diameter required. 7 22 j 308 22 14 14 88 88 o Now as in both these and all other examples in the rule of three direct, the fourth number is always equal to one more than the second ; so in the rule of three indirect, the fourth number is. always less than the second : — and as the fourth number m the direct rule is found by multiplying the second 270 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, cond and third numbers together, and dividing their product; so, on the contrary, in the indirect rule you multiply your first and second numbers into one another, and divide their product by the third, as follows. EXAMPLE III. If to men can perform a certain quantity of work in 30 days, how long time will 20 men be in performing the same ? RULE. men days men days Multiply 30, the second 10 : 30 : : 20 : 15 number, by 10 the first, and 10 their product, which is 300, - divide by 20, and the quo- 20 J 300 | 15 tient, which is 15, is the an- 20 fwer required. - 100 100 o Of Golden Rule Compound. In the golden rule compound there are always five numbers given to find a sixth in proportion thereto; which numbers must be so placed as that the three first may contain a supposition, and the two last a demand; and that you may place num- The Universal British Builder. 271 bers truly, always observe that the first number be of the same denomination with the fourth, the second of the same denomination with the fifth, and the third with the sixth required. EXAMPLE. If 8 men in 36 days lay 48 squares of flooring, how many squares can 6 men perform in 28 days ? RULE. First, state the question as below; secondly, multiply the two first numbers, viz. 36 into 8, whose product is 288, as also the two last is 168. Men Days Men Days 8 : 36 8 6 : 28 6 288 168 Now the answer to this is found by rule of three direct, by making 288 (the product of the first two) the first number; the third given number, 48 squares, your second; 168 (the product of your last) your third number. 208 : 48 272 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, 288 : 48 : 168 48 I 1344 1 672 288 J 8064 { 28 576 2304 2304 00 The answer is 28, which is 28 days, which is equal to 8 men in 36 days. To prove the Golden Rule. As the four numbers are proportionals, that is, the fourth is to the second as the third is to the first, therefore the square of the two means, (which are the second and third) are always equal to the square of the two extremes, (that is, the first and the last ;) that is to fay, if the product of the first and the last numbers, multiplied together into each other, be equal to the product 01the two middles, the work is right, else not. So The Universal British Builder. So 8064 the product of 288 168 28 48 2304 1344 576 672 80641 B | 8064 J 1 68 multiplied into 28, which are the two extremes of the above example, as at A, is equal to 8164, the product of 28 multiplied at 288, the two extremes of the fame example, as at B ; hence it is plain, that when the given numbers in the foregoing three varieties of the rule of three are truly stated, (and which, indeed, is the only difficulty in the whole) the manner of performing the operation is very easy. LECTURE LXXVI. The Extraction of the Square Root. E xtracting the square root is no more than finding the side of a geometrical square, whose area is the side multiplied into itself. For example : 25 is a square number, which is produced by 5 being multiplied into 5; so in like manner 16 is a square number, produced by 4 multiplied by 4. The side of any geometrical square is called its root. I have added a table of square numbers, whose roots are the nine digits, and which, being nothing more than part of the multiplication table, L 1 I doubt 274 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, I doubt not by the time you have got thus far, but you have got it by heart. EXAMPLE. 1 Let 625 be a root given to find its ■< square root. 2 - 4 3 - 9 4 -16 2 5 36 7 -49 8 -64 9 -81 RULE. Multiply 625 into itself, as at b c, whose produft j is 390625, the square number required, and whose ! root is thus extracted, viz. First, place a point above the first figure to the right-hand as at n, and at every other figure to the left-hand as at d and e. and observe as many points as this square number contains, so many places of figures the root will consist of. Secondly, make a crotchet at the right- hand of the square number as in division ; and note, that every two figures so pointed are called a punctuation. Thirdly, find in the table the nearest The Universal British Builder. 275 square number that is contained to the left-hand viz. in 39, which is 36', whose root is 6 , place 36 under 39, and its root 6 in the quotient, and subtracting 36 from 39, the remains are 3, which place under 36, as in the example; this is your first work, and is no more to be repeated. Fourthly, bring down the next punctuation 06 and join it to the remains 3, making 306, which is your first resolvend, and on its left-side make a crotchet as in division, to separate the divisor from the dividend. Fifthly, double the root 6, which makes 12, which place at the left of the resolvend, as at p then rejecting the last figure in the resolvend, which must always be done as at g, fee how often the divisor 12 is contained in the remaining two figures in the resolvend, which is twice, therefore place 2 in the quotient at f, and also at the right-hand of the divisor as at h, and multiply 122, the divisor, increased by 2, that is by the 2 in the quotient, the product is 244, which place under 306 the resolvend, which being subtracted from it, the remains are 62 ; this being done, bring down the next punctuation, and join it to the remainder 62, make it 6225 for a second L 1 2 resolvend, 0625 b 625 3 12 5 1250 3 75 ° e d n 390625 36 p h- 12. 2 | 30.6 g 244 f 62 6 124.5 ! 6 22.5 6 22 5 x o 00 o 276 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, resolvend, and then proceed as before, viz. double the quotient 62, which makes 124, which place on the left of the second resolvend ; then see how often 124 is contained in the last resolvend, the last figure as before rejected, it is 5 times, place 5 in the quotient, and also to the right os the last divisor; then multiplying the divisor by 5 as before, placing the remains under the resolvend as at x ; then subtracting from the resolvend, you will find no remains, which shews that 390625 is a square number, whose root is 625 required. Note, if the square number consists of more punctuations, you must still bring them down, and proceed in every respect as before. Secondly, if at any time, where you have multiplied the number standing in the place of the divisor by the figure last found in the quotient or root, the product be greater than the resolvend ; then, in such a case, you must put a figure less by one than the former in the quotient, ana multiply by it as before. Thirdly, if at any time the divisor cannot be had in the resolvend, then place a cypher in the quotient, and also on the right-hand of the divisor, and to the resolvend bring down the next punctuation for a new resolvend, with which proceed as before. Whenever it happens after extraction is made, there is a remainder, the number given is called a surd or irrational number, and its root cannot be exactly obtained, although by adding a cypher you may come as near the truth as possible. EXAMPLE. The Universal British Builder. 2 77 EXAMPLE. 160 j 12.649 1 060 44 j 1600 1476 252.4 12400 10096 If it is required to extract the root of 160, the first punctuation here being 1, the square of one is 1, which place under 1, subtracting 1 from 1 remains o, set 1 in the quotient, and to o bring 22 j down the next punctuation 60, making the remains 060. Secondly, double the quoti- 246 eat 1 makes 2, which place for your divisor as in the last example ; now as 2 is contained three times in 6, after rejecting the o as before - taught, being the last figure 2528.9 J 230400 in the refolvend to the right- 227601 hand ; I fay, to place 3 in - the quotient and divisor 2799 would make the latter 23, which multiplied by 3 would be 69, which is more than 60, the first refolvend, and cannot be subtracted from it; therefore, in such a cafe as I have before stated, place a figure less but one in the quotient, that is 2, and also the fame on the right of the divisor 2; then multiplying the divisor 22 by 2 in the quotient, the product is 44, which being placed under the first refolvend 60, and subtracted from it, the remains is 16. Thirdly, to the remains, annex two cyphers, and make it 1600 for a second refolvend ; and then, proceeding as before, the next figure in the quotient will be 6, and 124 remains, to which annex two cyphers more, making the remains 12400 for 278 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, for a third resolvend, and proceed in like manner by continually adding two cyphers every time to each remainder till you have increased the figures in the quotient to as many places as may be required ; in this I have increased them to three places, which I apprehend to be near enough for any business. If it is required to extract the square-root of EXAMPLES. 4096 1 64 Z6 678960 { 823 64 124 ] 49-6 49 6 162 j 38.9 32 4 00 o 1643 | 656.0 492 9 163 3 676 J 26 4 57284 I 238 4 46 | 27.6 27 6 43 I 17-2 12 9 00 o 468 [ 4 384 3 844 540 LECTURE The Universal British Builder. 279 LECTURE LXXVII. The Extraction of the Cube-Root. A Cube number is that number which is produced by multiplying any number into itself, and its product: again by the same number, so 64 is a cube number, produced by 4 multiplied in 64. A cube is a solid figure, contained under six equal squares, and may fully be represented by a dye. Of cube numbers there are three distinct kinds or species, viz. single, compound, and irrational. First, such are called single cube numbers which are made of any one single number, or significant figure multiplied twice into itself, as 1 multiplies nothing, and is both root and cube ; but, 2 times 2 is 4, and twice 4 is 8. so that 2 is the root, and 8 the cube ; also vj times 3 is 9, and 3 times 9 is 27, here 3 is the root, and 27 the cube ; and so of all the 9 diget numbers, as in the following table. E X A M P L E. 1 2 1 1 4 8 il 1 6 multiplied into I itself produceth g the square nnm- 8 bers, multiplied into Com- 280 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, Compound cube numbers are those whose roots consist of more figures than one, as if 12 was the the root, then 12 times 12 is 144 the square, and 12 times 144 is 1728, which is afoot cube of timber, &c. Irrational cube numbers are those whose exact cube cannot be found either by whole numbers, fractions, or decimals. EXAMPLE. 2 | 46144 Resolvend. u 432 288 w 64 Let 262144 be a cubed number given to find its root. First, point the d b first figure to the right- 262144 j 64 hand, then every third 216 figure towards the left- hand as at b d. Secondly, look at your table of cubed numbers, and find the near- estcube number to 262, which is 216, whose 46144 root is 6, place 6 in the - quotient, and 216 un- 00000 cler 262, and substrac- ing 216 from 262, the remains are 46 ; bring down the next punctuation 144, and annex them to 36, making it 36144, which is your first resolvend. Now to find a divisor by which you are to divide this resolvend, its two last figures excepted, which must always be done, proceed in the following manner, viz. First, square the quotient 6, which is 36, which treble makes 108, and is the divisor required as at r ; then seek how often you can have 108 in 461, rejecting the two figures to the right, as observed 4 times, which is equal to 432, which place The Universal British Builder. 281 place under the resolvend as 461 as at u, and set 4 in the quotient. Secondly, treble 6 the first; figure in the root equal to 18, which multiplied by 10, the square of 4, the last figure in the quotient makes 288, which place under 432, one place to the right-hand as at w ; also cube 4, the last figure in the quotient, which is equal to 64, which place under 288, one place more to the right hand, as at r; then the three subducends 432.288, and 64 being added together as they stand, their sum make a subtrahend 46144, which being subtracted from the first resolvend, their remains are nothing, which fhewS that 262144 is a cube number, whose part is EXAMPLES. 110592 1 49 64 146363183 { 527 125 48 ] 465.92 43 2 97 2 721 8 53641 15608 2951 8112 j 5755'-i83 5678 4 76 44 343 5755183 0000000 M m EXAMPLES. 282 48 M other A Key to Civil Architecture : Or* EXAMPLES. 103823 [ 47 64 r17649 I 49 64 Z98.23 336 588 363 48 | 536.49 432 97 2 729 39823 53649 00000 00000 110592 j 48 64 48 | 465.92 38 4 7 68 492 4 6572 00020 LECTURE LXXVIII. Os Mensuration. if reader must observe of the following treatise, that every quantity is measured by some quantity of the same kind, as a line by a line, a super- The Universal British Builder. 283 a superficies by a superficies, and a solid by a solid ; and the number which shews how often the lesser, called the measuring unit, is contained in the greater, or quantity measured, is called the content of the quantity so measured, thus ; if the quantity to be measured be a superficies, whose dimensions is 8 inches by 6 inches, and the measuring unit an inch each way ; then as many times as the unit is contained in the above rectancle, which much be 8 times 6, viz. 48 which is the number of superficial inches contained, from whence it is easy to conceive, that any square or rectangular figure may be found by repeating the number of parts into which the length is divided by the side of the measuring unit, as often as there are parts in the breadth of the same, whether inches, feet, yards, squares, &c. for it is in familiar speaking but multiplying one side by the other, and the product is the area required of all regular figures. How to measure the area of a triangle, RULE. Multiply the base by half the perpendicular; let fall or struck square from the base, or what is called the hypothenule, to the point of the right angle, and the product is the content required. Supposing the base of a triangle 25, half the perpen- 25 dicular let fall 9, I multiply them as 9 w the margin, and the product is the - content required. 225 M m 2 To 284 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, To find the content of a trapezium-figure, whose sides are parallel, though of an unequal length. RULE. Add the two sides together, and take half for the length; multiply that by the width, the product will be the content required. Sup- 27 posing the 2 sides added together 16 was 54, the width of the plain 16, -• I place them as in the margin, and 162 the product in the content re- 27 quired. -- 43 2 To find the content of any unequal-sided figure. RULE. Divide it into triangles, and measure it as before taught; then add the several sums together, which will be the content required. Having shewn how any right-lined superficial figure may be computed, it may be proper to say something with regard to the area, and circumference of a circle. It is well known, that to determine the true area of a circle, and to find a right line exactly equal to the perephery or circumference thereof, have been looked upon by mathematicians as absolutely impossible ; therefore I hope the learner will be content with such methods as will be near enough to approximate any thing required in the building branch, The Universal British Builder. 285 branch, and such as have been thought near j enough, not only by Archimedes, but every author i since. - LECTURE LXXIX. Of Circles. T HE diameter of a circle being given to find its circumference. RULE. As 7 is to 22, so is the diameter to the circumference. Suppose the diameter be 9 feet, first multiply the diameter 9 by 22, the product is 198, which divided by 7 gives 28 feet and 2-7ths of a foot for the circumference. The circumference of a circle being given, to find the diameter. RULE. 22 9 7 J 198 1 28 14 58 56 Multiply the circumference by 7, and divide by 22, the quotient will be the content required. The 286 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, The diameter of a circle being given, to find the area, or superficial content. RULE. As 7 is to 22, so is the square of the femi-diame- ter to the superficial content. Supposing the semi-diameter was 16 4 feet, that. squared is 16, multiplied 22 by 22 gives 352, and that product - divided by 7, the quotient is 4 g feet, 32 the area of the circle required. 32 7 I 352 | 49 28 72 63 9 How to measure any part or portion of a level. RULE. Multiply half the arch-line by the semi-diameter, and the product will be the superficial content. The Universal British Builder. 287 To find the superficial content of a cilinder. RULE. As 7 is to 22, so is the diameter and length of the side multiplied one by another, to the superficial content of the out- 12 side of the cilinder. Supposing the 5 diameter was 5, and the length 12, —> those multiplied together make 60 ; 60 and again multiplied by 22, the 22 product is 1320, which divided by - 7 gives 188 ieet, the superficial con- 120 tent.-Note, This may be done 120 by girting the cilinder for the width multiplied by the length. 7 1 13 20 7 6 2 5 6 188 60 56 To measure the superficies of a dome or globe. RULE. Multiply the diameter by the circumference, and the product is the content required. How 288 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, How to measure a pyramid. RULE. Add all the four sides of the base together, and take half the sum multiplied by the height, which will be the superficial content required. LECTURE LXXX. Of Solids. S Olid figures or bodies are such as consist of three dimensions, as length, breadth, and thickness, as stone, timber, earth, or any other solid body whatsoever. The difference in the measurement of superficies and solids is this; in the former you have only to measure the length by the breadth; in the latter you have to multiply that product by the thickness, by the following example. Supposing a cubical figure was 1 foot ft. in. 6 inches by i foot 6 inches, and 2 feet l 6 deep, first I multiply l foot 6 inches by i 6 l foot 6 inches by duodecimals, and the- product by 2 foot, the depth, the con- 9 0 tent is 4 J feet of solid content. 1 6 2 3 ° 2 4 6 All The Universal British Builder. 289 All regular solid bodies that are above a foot in the square may be measured by duodecimals, being much the simplest and readiest method. Supposing a piece of square timber was 2 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 3 inches, and 9 feet long. EXAMPLE. First multiply 2 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 3 inches, and that product; by the length, the last product will be 29 feet 7 inches 6 parts, the content required. Z Z 6 9 29 7 6 ft. in. 2 6 1 3 7 6 2 6 To measure the solid content of any scantling of timber under a foot. Multiply one side by the other, that is, squaring one end, and multiply that by 12 gives the folia inches in one foot long ; after multiply that product by the number of feet the piece contains in length, and the product will be the content in inches; after divide by 728, the cubical inches in a foot, and you will have the solid content in feet. Nn EXAMPLE. zgo A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, EXAMPLE. Supposing a piece of timber 3 the scantling of which was 8 by 8 Z, I fay, 8 times 3 is 24, and mul- — tiply that by 12 gives 288 solid 24 inches, the length 25 multiply in- 12 to 288, and divide by 728, gives - 9 solid feet of timber, and 648 so- 288 lid inches, which is something less 25 than a quarter of a foot. - , M40 576 728 j 7200 ] 9 6552 648 To find the solid content of a pyramid. RULE. , First find the superficial content of the base, or biggest end, and that product multiplied by one third of the height, the product will be the superficial content. The same if the base was a triangle. LECTURE The Universal British Builder. 291 LECTURE LXXXI. Of Measuring Round Timber. I T is customary in measuring round timber, if a tree is regularly stiaped, to girt it in the middle with a string, for a mean between the two ends; then the string must be doubled four times for the girt. So if a tree is in circumference 32 inches, the girt is 8 inches. RULE to measure it. Square the girt, and multi- 8 ply that by 12, and the pro- 8 duct by the length, and divide —> by 1728, you have the content 64 required, as in the margin, which is 11 solid feet and 192 12 solid inches, which is near | of 768 a foot. 25 3840 rZ 36 1728 J 19200 1728 1920 1728 192 N n 2 Note. 292 A Ke y to Civil Architecture : Or, Note. If the timber girt be above a foot, you may measure by duodecimals, which is much the belt and easiest method. See the following EXAMPLE. Suppose a piece of round timber or stone girt 1 foot 3 inches, first I square that, and multiplying the product by the last product, 1 find the content required to a length of 8 feet; and so of any other dimension. 12 60 1 3 1 3 3 9 1 3 1 6 9 8 LECTURE LXXXII. Of Geometry. G Eometry is that science by which we compare all quantities together that have extension, being the basis of building, and on which almost every art depends. Geometry is both speculative and practical; the former elucidates the properties of lines, figures, and angles ; the latter teaches how to apply or reduce them to practice in architecture, &c. Extension is considered by length, breadth, and thickness, A line is that which hath length without breadth. The bounds of a line, or extremes, are called points, and have no magnitude or extension to be divided to our sight. When extension called quantities The Universal British Builder. 293 quantities are considered as lengths, only they are called lines. Those with lengths and breadths are called surfaces. A right-line is that which lies evenly between its extremes, or every where tends the fame way. An angle is the opening or inclination of two right-lines meeting each other in a point. An acute angle is that which is less than a right angle. An obtuse angle is that which is greater than a right angle. Two right lines are said to be equidistant, when perpendiculars are any way taken, and are of equal length. A right lined plain figure is that whose bound are right lines. All plain figures bounded by three lines are called triangles. A right-angled triangle is that which has one right angle, whereof the side opposite to the right angle is called the hypothenuse. An equitateral-triangle is that whose sides are all equal. A scalene-triangle is when all the three sides are unequal. A rectangle is a square whose sides and angles are equal. Also, a parallellogram, whose angles, if right, are called rectangles. A trapezium is an irregular four-sided square. A circle is a figure bounded by one line, called its perephery or circumference. Every right line pasting through the center of a circle, and terminating in the circumference, is called a diameter. An arch of a circle is any portion of the perephery or circumference. The cord or fustence of an arch is a right line joining the two extremes of that arch. A feg- 294 A Key to Civil Architecture : Or, A segment of a circle is a figure contained under a semi-circle. A semi-circle is a figure contained under any diameter, and the part of the circumference cut off from that diameter. A sector of a circle is a figure contained under two right lines drawn from the center to the circumference. The radius of a circle is the distance of the center from the circumference. These figures and bounds mentioned are part of one of the great principles of geometry, being distinguished into three parts, viz. postulates, axioms, and definitions. The former being demands or suppositions, intimate, that from any given line or point another right line may be drawn. That from any center or distance, or with any radius, the circumference of a circle may be described. Also, that the equality of lines and angles to others given be granted as possible for one right line to be perpendicular, or parallel to another, at a given point or distance ; and that every magnitude hath its half, quarter, third, fourth, &c. The second principle are axioms or self-evident truths, as every whole is greater than its half. That every whole is equal to all its parts. Also, if to equal things equal things be added, the whole must be equal. All right-angles are equal to each other, if from equal things equal things be taken, the remains will be equal. The third and last principle is definitions, which are the explications of such terms, figures, and words, as concern a proposition in order to render it intelligible and plain to the undertaking, that every The Universal British Builder. 295 every objection in demonstration may be comprehended without difficulty. By a proposition is understood something proposed to be done or designed. Also, when a problem is named, something is proposed or intended to be done. A theorem is when something is offered for demonstration. A lemma is a premise demonstrated with a view to render what follows, and what was first intended more plain. A scholium is, when remarks or observations are ade upon something going before. A corollary is a truth gained from some preceding consequent truth or demonstration. The proper design of a definition being to shew and explain the term or thing designed, so as to give a precise and competent idea thereof, it is certain the exact meaning of every term made use of in a definition ought to be perfectly understood, or at least should be better known or more commonly received than the term to be defined. It was from this motive, that I have made free to nominate some of the principles of geometry, in order to animate the student to the search of it, which, if pursued with vigour, will give such satisfaction from the justness of its reasoning, as is only peculiar to the subject, and create a thirst for the spirit of its profundity. Having said so much, and extended the volume beyond its intended size, I must beg my readers pardon for any mistakes committed either through deficiency of language, or the errors of the press, and turn his thought upon the extension and real meaning of the subject, and I hope he will at least acknowledge my intent was good, and if those who may 2g6 A Key to Civil Architecture: Or, may be unacquainted with many of the matters spoken of, will but take upon themselves to study as much for their own advantage as I have done for the general benefit of mankind, I am persuaded they will not think their labours lost. 5 . F INI THE CONTENTS. A. Page A Rchitecture, a treatise of, lecture 1Z, 43 Arches of brick, lecture 16, 09 Arch upon a circular plan in wood, lecture 49, 198 Arches in brick, lecture 16, 95 Ashler fronts in stone, lecture 58, 214 Angular chimnies to measure, lecture 14, 56 Architraves how measured, lecture 14, 66 Arithmetic, a treatise of, lecture 64, 231 B. Brick-work, a treatise of, lecture 16, 86 Brick-work how valued, lecture 16, 96 Brick-work, an universal standard for, lee. 16, 101 Bricks, how many required to wall a rod, lecture 16, 98 Backing of a hip-raftor, lecture 54, 206 Bridging-joists, their scantling, lecture 55, 207 Beams ditto, lecture 56, 208 Building in general, lecture 8, 26 Ballance, the properties thereunto belonging, lecture 2, -- , 8 O o Beauties CONTENTS. Beauties of building, lecture 12, Binding-joists, their scantling, lecture 55, Page 41 207 C. Carpenters work, how measured, lecture 14, 59 Carpenters work, a treatise of, lecture 52, 201 Carpenters work, how valued, lecture 54, 209 Carvers work, how measured, lecture 14, 76 Ditto, how valued, lecture 21, 123 Chimney-pieces of marble, lecture 58, 214 Chimney-pieces of stone, lecture 58, ibid. Coping of Portland stone, lecture 58, ibid. Columns of stone, and fluting, lecture 98, 215 Capitols carving on stone, lecture 58, 216 Ditto on wood, lecture 21, 123 Carcase of a house, how measured, lect. 14, 60 Centring to vaults, lecture 52, 200 Centers how valued, lecture 52, 212 Ditto how measured, lecture 14, 62 Cross multiplication, lecture 70, 251 Ceilings of plaister, lecture 17, 109 Circles, lecture 79, 285 Corinthian enriched cornices in plaister, lec- 113 % Zl 119 68 186 196 1.95 2 79 Doors ture 17, Ditto how measured, lecture 14, Chimney-pieces how measured, lecture 14, Convenience in building, lecture 9, Clear-coal-painting, how valued, lecture 18, Columns, how measured, lecture 14, Columns, how glued up, lecture 44, Capitols ditto, lecture 47, Columns, how fluted, lecture 46, Cafe of a journeyman carpenter, lecture 15, Cube root, how extracted, lecture 77, CONTENTS. D. Page Doors, how made, lecture 24, 138 Ditto, how valued, lecture 24, 144 Duodecimal arithmetic, lecture 70, 251 Dedication to Mr. Hardisty — 125 Doric front, how proportioned, lecture 44, 187 Doric front, how measured, lecture 14, 63 E. Estimating in general, with rules and observations, lecture 59, — 217 F. Floors of all forts, lecture 25, 146 Floors, how measured, lecture 14, 66 Ditto, how valued, lecture 25, 147 Floors to frame, with binding-joists, lect. 56, 209 Fire-stone hearths, how valued, lecture 58, 215 Floors of plaister, lecture 17, 114 Frontispieces, to measure, lecture 14, 63 G. Glaziers work, lecture 19, — 121 Glaziers work to measure, lecture 14, 73 Groins of brick, lecture 16, 91 Girders, their scantling, lecture 55, 208 Gable-ends,- how meaiured, lecture 14, 57 Geometry, of, lecture 82, 292 O o 2 House- CONTENTS. H. P a ge House-painting in general, lecture 18, 115 Hov/ measured, lecture 14, 74 Hip-roofs, how measured, lecture 14, 61 I. Joiners-work, how measured, lecture 14, 62 Italian marble, how valued, lecture 18, 215 Joists, their scantling, lecture 55, 207 Ionic-cornices in plaister, how valued, ibid. Ionic-order, some observations, lecture 13, 47 Introduction to mechanics, 1 L. Leaver, a treatise thereon, lecture 3, 10 Lead, the value of, lecture 57, 212 Lead, new cast and laid, lecture 57, 213 Lead-pipes, how valued, lecture 37, 214 Lime, the best fort, lecture 16, 99 Lime, what quantity to a rod of brick-work, lecture 16, - 100 Linsced-oil, the value in paint, lecture 17, 107 Linings, the value of, lecture 49, 199 M. Masons-work, lecture 58, 214 How measured, lecture 14, 75 Measuring, ? dissertation thereon, lecture 14, 49 Measuring of superficies, 287 Measuring CONTENTS. Page Measuring of solids, 288 Modillion-cornices in plaister, lecture 17, 113 How valued, ibid. Mouldings, a dissertation thereon, lect. 23, 132 Multiplication, lecture 68, 243 Marble of various forts, lecture 18, 214 Measuring the different artificers works, lect. 14 * 75 Modillions of wood, how valued, lect. 23, 137 Mensuration, lect. 78, 282 Mechanics, a dissertation thereon, lect. 1, 7 N. Nails, how many to a square in flooring, lecture 25, 148 Naked floors, how measured, lecture 14, 61 Naked floors, how valued, lecture 56, 210 Naked flooring, the price at taste work, lect. 60, 221 Naked flooring of oak, the price, lect. 56, 209 O. Ovolos carved, lect. 21, < 123 Openings to chimnies, lecture 11, 39 O-gees carved, lecture 21, 124 Oak-dowelled floors, their value, lecture 25, 147 P. Pulley, a dissertation thereon, lecture 5, 17 Plumbers-work, how valued, lecture 57, 213 Plaisterers-work, a dissertation thereon, lect. 17, 108 Plaisterers- CONTENTS. P a ge Plaisterers-work, how measured, lect. 14, 72 Painters-work, the value, ibid. How measured, ibid. Properties and principles of stairs defined, lect. 31, - Pan-tiles, at what per thousand, Plain tiles per thousand, lect. 16 , Portland-stone, the price of, lecture 58, Portland-paving, lecture 58, Purbeck-stone paving, - Pilasters, how fluted, lecture 4 6 , Partitions framed, their value, lecture 56, Partitions, the price of task work, lect. 60, Planking of foundations, talk work, lect. 60 , 224 Pipes of lead, their value, lecture 57, ibid. Painting, the expence of, lecture 18, 115 Paint of all colours, how fold, lecture 18, 114 Plates to floors, how valued in talk work, lecture 60, - 222 Propriety in building, lecture 11, 33 Roofs to frame with king-post, how valued, lecture 56, - 209 Raftors feet and eaves, how valued, lect. 56, 210 Raftors, their scantling, lecture 55, 208 Ramps, with their properties, lecture 41, 177 Round timber to measure, lecture 81, 291 S. Sashes and sash-frames, their value, lect. 29, 15 4 How measured, lecture 14, - 68 Steps )ic 104 214 214 ibid. m 211 224 CONTENTS. Page Steps of Portland-stone, lecture 58, —> 215 Steps of Purbeck, lecture 58, ibid. Scroll to a hand-rail, how drawn, lect. 40, 176 Shutters to windows, lecture 27, 149 Square-root, how extracted, lecture 76, 273 Shutters, how hung, lecture 27, — 150 Stair-caling in all its branches continued, lect. 3 1 ’ . . - 159 Screw, a dissertation thereon, lecture 7, 21 Stucco, how valued, lecture 17, 108 Sand, the load, lecture 16, —> gg Solder per pound, lecture 57, 213 Solids, lecture 80, 288 Sadies painting, the price, lecture 18, 115 T. Twist to a hand-rail, how glued up, lect. 38, 171 Table of brick-work to any value of bricks, lecture 16, 101 Timber to measure, --- ibid. Tiling, the value of, lecture 16, 103 Tuscan order, lecture 13, - 45 W. Wedge, a dissertation thereon, lecture 6, 21 Wheel, a lecture thereon with strictures, lect. r .4, . 13 Wainfcotting, how valued, lecture 28, 153 Weith-rail, how glued up, lecture 32, 179 pi o SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. A. M R. Peter Atkinson, surveyor, of York 4 Mr. Alexander, carpenter Mr. Alhrnan, carpenter Mr. Absalom, of Wallingford, Berks Mr. Archer, carpenter Mr. Armstrong, carpenter Mr. Appleyard Mr. Andrews B. Mr. Boston, carpenter, inFofs-gate, York Mr. Boston, of London Mr. Baylis, carpenter and joiner Mr. Braim, of Pocklington, Yorkshire Mr. Birch, carpenter Mr. Barlow, carpenter, Whitecross-street Mr. Bevan, plaisterer Mr. Birch, in the Borough, Southwark Mr. Butterworth, carpenter and joiner Mr. Bennet, carpenter Mr. Blanchard, carpenter, Farthing-alley Mr. Batridge Mr. Burton Mr. Baston Mr. Barns Mr. Bursnal Mr. Birch Mr. Burrows Mr. Brown Pp SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. Mr. Bell Mr. Brunsdon Mr. Brown Mr. Biebby Mr. Backhouse Mr. Bradbury Mr. Blower Mr. Bull Mr. Barrat Mr. Bousie Mr. Bowman Mr. Bennet Mr. Barley Mr. Beadle Mr. Bishop Mr. Belinger Mr. Bridgeman C. Mr. Coatham, carpenter and joiner, in York Mr. Cowper, of Acaster, near York Mr. Salmon Cooper, surveyor, 6 Mr. Crouch, carpenter and joiner Mr. Clack junior, carpenter and joiner Mr. Cross, carpenter and joiner Mr. Cunningham, carpenter, Cumberland-street Mr. Cross, surveyor, 2 Mr. Cookman, carpenter Mr. Cundell Mr. Cay Mr. Cadby Mr. Cowell Mr. Calbert Mr. Caswell Mr. Cannival Mr. Clark Mr. Campbell Mr. Cooke Mr. Cririe Mr. Cox Mr. Cookman Mr. Currel Mr. Coombe Mr. Coombe Mr, Conyers Mr. Chapman Mr. Cockburn Mr. Carter Mr. Collins Mr. Coles Mr. Curley Mr. Cupit Mr. Carrison Mr. Cowley Mr. Clark Mr. Corrington SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. D. Mr. Drake, carpenter and joiner, of York Mr. Dods, of Brook-street Mr. O’Daniel, carpenter and joiner Mr. William Dodgfon, surveyor Mr. Davis, May’s-pond, Southwark Mr. Davis, Black-friars Mr. Dods Mr. Downs Mr. Dawson Mr. Duncan Mr. Darley Mr. Darlkel Mr. Donaldson Mr. Denier Mr. Dixon E. Mr. Evans, carpenter and joiner, of Pimlico Mr. Evans, carpenter and joiner, Soho Mr. Evans, Black-friars Mr. B. Evans, Black-friars Mr. Everard Mr. Evans Mr. Emeline Mr. Edmunds F. Mr. Fowler, carpenter and joiner Mr. Forthingham, carpenter and joiner Mr. Falkard, of East-Bergholt, Elfex Mr. Fowler Mr. Feast Mr. Frazer Mr. Frankley Mr. Frond Mr. Follet Mr. Fluke Mr. Falconer SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. G. Mr. Gibson, carver, of York Mr. Gibson, carpenter and joiner, of Pimlico Mr. Griffiths, carpenter, Narrow-wall, Lambeth Mr. Gitto, carpenter and joiner Mr. Griffiths, of Piccadilly Mr. Griffiths Mr. Gates Mr. Gravel Mr. Groves Mr. Green Mr. Glenville Mr. Gregory Mr. Gough Mr. Goodmans H. Mr. Hardisty, carpenter and joiner, of York Mr. Hailstone, bricklayer, of York Mr. Hampton, carpenter and joiner, Shoreditch Mr. Harrison, of Marybone Mr. Hudson Mr. Howman Mr. How Mr. Hopping Mr. Hetley junior Mr. Hillard Mr. Holmes Mr. Holmer Mr. Hutfon Mr. Hutchinfon Mr. Harden Mr. Hallywell Mr. Heather Mr. Hawkffiaw Mr. Howel Mr. Harrison Mr. Harden Mr. Hill Mr. Hilton Mr. Hawes Mr. Hawkins Mr. Hucklebridge Mr. Hicks Mr. Hargrave Mr. Harrison J- Mr. Jackson, in the Borough, Southwark Mr. James, bricklayer SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. Mr. Jenkins, carpenter and joiner, Shoreditch Mr. Jackson Mr. James Mr. Jenkins Mr. Jones K. Mr. Keyton Mr. Killy Mr. Kenley Mr. Kindal Mr. Keater Mr. Alex. Kennedy Mr. K'irkman L. Mr. Lewes, Soho Mr. Linley, architect, of York Mr. Leech. Soho Mr. Lum Mr. Ludman Mr. Luke Mr. Laurance Mr. Letch Mr. Lewes Mr. Lanes Mr. Lilly Mr. Leadbury Mr. Limer Mr. Linley Mr. Little M. Mr. Mason, bricklayer, of York, 3 Mr. Marchal, carpenter and joiner, of York Mr. Mountain, surveyor, of York Mr. Mason, of Harlow-llreet Mr. Marchal, of Pimlico Mr. M’Daniel, carpenter and joiner Mr. Micklewright, carpenter and joiner Mr. Milton, plaillerer Mr. Maws Mr. Marrot Mr. Murray Mr. Morley Mr. Markham Mr. Murrel SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. Mr. Marchal Mr. Meadows Mr. Matthews Mr. Mann Mr. Merrington Mr. Monroe N. Mr. Nicolls, carpenter and joiner Mr. Noates Mr. Norman Mr. Norton Mr. Oates, carpenter and joiner Mr. Otter Mr. Osborn Mr. Ocley P. Mr. Peacock, carpenter, Skelder-gate, Mr. Pinder, of Pocklington, Yorksliire Mr. Preston, carpenter and joiner Mr. Philips - Mr. Peirce Mr. Parsons Mr. Palmer Mr. Panchard Mr. Pearson Mr. ferryman Mr. Piemy Mr. Powel Mr. Portex Mr. Pettit Mr. Parker Q- Mr. Quin R. Mr. Randal, plaisterer Mr. Rice, of Aldersgate-street York SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. Mr. Raison, carpenter and joiner, of York Mr. Roberts Mr. Rowbotham Mr. Revel Mr. Robey Mr. Randal Mr. Rodgers Mr. Robertson Mr. Roper Mr. Richmond Mr. Rice Mr. Rippon Mr. Rollingson Mr. Richardson S. Mr. S. Seamans, of West-Bergholt, Essex, 8 Mr. Sellers, carpenter and joiner, of York Mr. Shepard, of St. Mary-le-bone Mr. Self, bricklayer, Soho Mr. Smith, bricklayer Mr. Settle, carpenter and joiner, of York Mr. John Seamonds Mr. Sloakham Mr. Shedrach Seamonds Mr. Sharp Mr. Selby Mr. Stubs Mr. Smith, Soho Mr. Smith Mr. Sweatland Mr. Steward Mr. Sulllom Mr. Siddon Mr. Smith Mr. Symonds Mr. Secton Mr. Swain Mr. Scouler Mr. Seymour Mr. Stephens Mr. Sullivan T. Mr. Thomson, of St. Mary-le-bone Mr. Thomas, Harlow-street Mr. Thomas, of Leominster, Herefordshire, Mr. Taite, of Boston Mr. Thomas, Black-friars Mr. Talker, of York SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. Mr. Thomas, Booth-court Mr. Talmege Mr. Trufcott U. Mr. Uers Mr. Vials W. Mr. Wilson, of Pocklington, Yorkshire Mr. Wilkinson, of York Mr. Wright, Mount-street Mr. Williams, carpenter and joiner Mr. Wales, Kingfland Mr. White Mr. Woodhouse Mr. Weadreal Mr. Wapshot Mr. White Mr. Wilcox Mr. West Mr. Wallace Mr. W. Wallace Mr. Weaver Mr. Wellsman Mr. Whiteman Mr. Woodward Mr. Watton Mr. Warbeg Mr. Woollins Mr. Williams Mr. J. Williams M ilizm ^ jU8Luij9usnBJ3i| jipiu eyig a 3iyv>iHona o o o f* nfioo ooH 7 n J9ujLun|\L 1 rqv lOO --I* 7 S 3 pueg 06853 1p0^; [,:• *$- ;■ 'ySJSfr&K&dF- ; \ . 4 '-WSr^ V; ■tftef' WGMMMO feSs/L^isi •iSKS^£5^ E:;K MtzLS' mm ’, ?MLK24L'> » WE AWE KMV 2*ji**p;