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THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF

In the early ages both of the Greek and Roman republics,the other parts of education seem to have consisted in learn-ing to read, write, and account according to the arithmeticof the times. These accomplishments the richer citizensseem frequently to have acquired at home, by the assistanceof some domestic pedagogue, who was, generally, either aslave or a freedman; and the poorer citizens, in the schoolsof such masters as made a trade of teaching for hire. Suchparts of education, however, were abandoned altogether tothe care of the parents or guardians of each individual. Itdoes not appear that the state ever assumed any inspectionor direction of them. By a law of Solon, indeed, the chil-dren were acquitted from maintaining those parents in theirold age, who had neglected to instruct them in some profit-able trade or business.

In the progress of refinement, when philosophy and rhe-toric came into fashion, the better sort of people used to sendtheir children to the schools of philosophers and rhetoricians,in order to be instructed in these fashionable sciences. Butthese schools were not supported by the public. They werefor a long time barely tolerated by it. The demand for phi-losophy and rhetoric was for a long time so small, that thefirst professed teachers of either could not find constant em-ployment in any one city, but were obliged to travel aboutfrom place to place. In this manner lived Zeno of Elea ,Protagoras, Gorgias , Ilippias, and many others. As the de-mand increased, the schools both of philosophy and rhetoricbecame stationary; first in Athens, and afterward in severalother cities. The state, however, seems never to have en-couraged them farther than by assigning to some of them aparticular place to teach in, which was sometimes done tooby private donors. The state seems to have assigned theacademy to Plato, the Lyceum to Aristotle , and the Porticoto Zeno of Citta, the founder of the Stoics. But Epicurus bequeathed his gardens to his own school. Till about thetime of Marcus Antoninus , however, no teacher appears tohave had any salary from the public, or to have had anyother emoluments, but what arose from the honoraries orfees of his scholars. The bounty which that philosophicalemperor, as we learn from Lucian , bestowed upon one of theteachers of philosophy, probably lasted no longer than hisown life. There was nothing equivalent to the privilegesof graduation, and to have attended any of those schools was