148

ORATORY,

Anti Cicero never exceeds that number. Yet it is sometimesconvenient to subdivide these again, into several parts. Thissubdividing, however, should never have place but when it is ab-solutely necessary. To split a subject into many minute parts,has always a bad effect in speaking. It makes an oration appeardry, and unnecessarily fatigues the memory. In a sermon, theremaybe from three to five or six heads, including subdivisions;seldom more.

Of Confirmation. The orator having acquainted his hearers, inthe proposition, with the subject on which he designs to discourse,usually proceeds either to prove <>? illustrate what he has laiddown. Some discourses require nothing more than an illustration,

. to set them in a proper light, for which reason, they have often nodistinct proposition. But where arguments arc brought in detence.of the Subject, this is properly confirmation. Cicero defines“ confirmation, that which gives proof, authority, and support, toa cause, by reasoning.” If any thing in the proposition seems• obscure, or liable to be misunderstood, the orator first explains it,and then offers such arguments in proof of it, and represents themin such a light, as seem most proper to gain the assent of hishearers. Two methods of reasoning are employed by orators, thesynthetic and analytic.

I. livery piece of synthetic reasoning may be resolved into asyllogism, or series of syllogisms. See Logic. As a logical syl-logism consists of three parts or propositions, a rhetorical syllogismfrequently contains four or five. Cicero reckons this last themost complete, lhit all that is said in confirmation of either ofthe premises is accounted but as one part. But orators do notoften use complete syllogisms, but most commonly en'hymnnes.An enthymeme is an imperfect syllogism, consisting of two parts;the conclusion, and one of the premises: and in this kind of syllo-gism, that proposition is omitted, w hether it be the major or mi-nor, which is sufficiently manifest of itself, and may easily be sup-

■ plied by the hearers. But the proposition that is expressed is•usually called tiie antecedent, and the conclusion the consequent.

II. The other method of reasoning is the analytic, in which theorator conceals his intention concerning the point he is to prove,till he has gradually brought his hearers to the designed conclusion.They are led on, step by step, from one know n truth to another,till five conclusion be stolen upon them, as the natural consequenceof a chain of propositions.

Of Confutation. The forms of reasoning here are the same ashave been explained under confirmation. Confutation, however,is often the more difficult task; because he who is to prove a.•thing comes usually prepared ; but he who is to confute it is fre-quently left to a sudden answer. Therefore, not only a goodjudgement, but a readiness of thought, is necessary, lint, in alldisputes, it is of the greatest consequence to observe where thestress of the controversy lies. In confutation, what the adversarylias advanced ought carefully to be considered, and in what mannerhe lias expressed himself. Those arguments that are foreign tothe subject may, in a very few words, be shewn to the insignifi-cant. There ought also to be a distinction made between suchthings as relate to the subject, according to their importance.Those that appear to have no great weight should be slightly re-marked ; and are generally better turned off with an air of neglect,a pungent question, or an agreeable jest, than confuted by a seri-ous and laboured answer. But those, which relate to the meritsof the cause, may be confuted either by contradicting them, or•toy > he wing some mistake in the reasoning, or their invalidity whengranted.

Of tlic Conclusion. Rhetoricians make the conclusion of a dis-course to consist of two parts: recapitulation, and an address tothe passions.

I. Recapitulation is a summary account of what the speaker hasbefore offered in maintenance of bis subject; and is designed bothto refresh the memory of the hearers, and to bring the principalarguments together into a narrow compass, that they may appearin a stronger light.

It. By an address to the passions, the orator sometimes endea-vours occasionally to work upon his hearers in other parts of hisdiscourse, hut especially in the conclusion, where he is warmesthimself, and labours to make them so. For the main design ofthe introduction is to conciliate the hearers; of the narration, pro-position, and confirmation, to inform them ; and of the conclu-sion, to move them. Anti therefore, says Quintilian , " Here all

the springs of eloquence are to he opened. It is here we securethe minds of the hearers, if what went before was managed. Nowwe are past the rocks and shallows, all the sails may he hoisted.And as the greatest part of the conclusion consists in illustration,tiie most pompous language and strongest figures have place here.”The passions, which tiie orator addresses, differ according to thenature of thediscour e. In demonstrative orations, when lauda-tory,—love, admiration, and emulation, are usually excited; hutin invectives,— hatred, envy, and contempt. In deliberative sub-jects, either the hope of gratifying some desire is set in view, orthe fear of some impending evil. And in judicial discourses,almost ail the passions have place, but more especially resentmentand pity. But the same passion may be excited bv very differentmethods. Horace endeavours to recommend virtue, by laughingvice out of countenance; I’crsius moves us to an abhorrence ofvice, with the severity of a philosopher; and Juvenal , by openand vehement invectives. So orators make use of all these me-thods, hut they should not dwell long upon the same passion.When the emotion is once carried as high as it can be, the hearersshould be left under its influence.

Of Digression, Transition, and Amplification.

Besides the number, order, and nature, of (he parts which con-stitute a complete and regular oration, explained in the precedingchapters, there are several other things necessary to be known byan orator, which come under the second branch of his art. Theseare, Digression, Transition, and Amplification.

I. Digression, as defined by Quintilian , is, “ A going off fromthe subject we are upon to some different thing, which may, how-ever, lie of service to it." As where a subject is of itself dry, orrequires close intention, it relieves the mind by something enter-taining. But they should neither be too frequent nor too long.Indeed orators sometimes, when sore pressed, and the cause willnot bear a close scrutiny, artfully run into digression, to divert theattention of the hearers from the subject, and turn them to a dif-ferent view. And in such cases, to be unobserved, they do it ta-c-iily, that they may get dear of a difficulty, till they enter upon,some fresh topic.

II. Transitions are often used not only after a digression, butupon other occasions. A transition is, “ A form of speech, bywhich the speaker in a few words tells his hearers both what he hassaid already, ami what he next designs to say.” Where a dis-course consists of several parts, this is often very proper, especiallywhen the parts are of a considerable length; for it assists thehearers to carry on the series of the discourse in their minds. Itis likewise a relief to the attention, to be told when an argumentis finished, and what is to he expected next. But sometimes, inpassing from one tiling to another, a general hint is thought suffi-cient to prepare the hearers, without specifying what has been said,or is next to follow. And at other times, for greater brevity, thetransition is imperfect, and mention made only of the followinghead.

ill. By Amplification is meant not barely enlarging upon athing, but so to represent it in the fullest and most comprehensiveview, as that it may in the liveliest manner strike the mind, andinfluence the passions. Rhetoricians have observed several waysof doing this. One is to ascend from a particular thing to a gene -ral. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Arcliias, having commendedhim as an excellent poet, says many things in praise of polite lite-rature in general. A contrary method is, to descend from a ge-neral to a particular. As if any.one, while speaking in commen-dation of eloquence, should illustrate what he says from the exam-ple of Cicero, and siiew tiie great services lie did Ids country, amithe honours he gained to himselt, by his admirable skill in oratory.A third method is by an enumeration of parts. Such representa-tions greatly enlarge the image of a thing, and afford the mind amuch clearer view of it than if it were contracted into one singleproposition. Another method similar to the former is, when anything is illustrated from a variety of causes or effects. A thingmay likewise he illustrated by its opposite. Thus the blessingsand advantages of peace may he recommended from the miseriesand calamities of war. See Amplification.

Of Elocution.

Elocution directs us lo suit both the words and expressions of adiscourse to the nature of the subject, or to speak with propriety

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