S44 SCULPTURE.

method of forming models of wet day was either unknown or neg-lected among the Greeks; on the contrary, it was in Greece thatmodels of this kind were invented. Their author was Dihutadesof Sicyon ; and it is well known that Arcesilas, the triend of Lu-cullus, obtained a higher degree of reputation by his clay modelsthan by all his other productions. Indeed, if clay could be madeto preserve its original moisture, it would undoubtedly be thefittest substance for the models of the sculptor; but when it isplaced either in the fire or left to dry imperceptibly in the air, itssolid parts grow more compact, and the figure losing thus a partof its dimensions, is necessarily reduced to a smaller volume. Thisdiminution would be of no consequence did it equally affect thewhole figure, so as to preserve its proportions entire. Hut this isnot the case : for the smaller parts of the figure dry sooner thanthe larger; and thus losing more of their dimensions in the samespace of time than the latter do, the symmetry and proportions ofthe figure inevitably suffer. This inconvenience docs not takeplace in those models that are made in wax. It is indeed ex-tremely difficult, in the ordinary method of working the wax, togive it that degree of smoothness (hat is necessary to represent thesoftness of the carnations of fleshy parts of the body. This incon-venience may, however, be remedied, by forming the model firstin clay, then moulding it in plaster, and lastly casting it in wax.And, indeed, clay is seldom used but as a mould in which to casta figure of plaster, stucco, or wax, to serve henceforth for a modelby which the measures and proportions of the statue are to be ad-justed. In making waxen models, it is common to put half apound of colophony to a pound of wax ; and some add turpen-tine, melting the whole with oil of olives. So much for the firstor preparatory steps in this procedure. It remains to consider themanner of working the marble after the model so prepared.The method generally observed by the modern sculptor isas follows: First, out of a great block of marble he saws anotherof the size required, which is performed with a smooth stecl-saw,without teeth, casting water and sand thereon from time to time ;then he fashions it, by taking otf what is superfluous with a steel-point and heavy hammer of soft iron ; after this, bringing it nearthe measure required, lie reduces it still nearer with another finerpoint; he then, uses a flat cutting instrument, having notches in itsedge ; and then a chisel to take off the scratches which the formerhas left; till, at length, taking rasps of different degrees of fine-ness, by degrees lie brings his work into a condition for polishing.After this, having studied his model with all possible attention, liedraws upon this model horizontal and perpendicular lines inter-secting eacli other at right angles. lie then copies these linesupon his marble, as the painter makes use of such transversal linesto copy a picture, or to reduce it to a smaller size. These trans-versal lines or squares, drawn in an equal number upon the mar-ble and upon the model, in a manner proportioned to their respec-tive dimensions, exhibit accurate measures of the surfaces uponwhich the artist is to work ; but cannot determine, with equal pre-cision, the depths that are proportioned to these surfaces. The

sculptor, indeed, may determine these depths by observing therelation they bear to his model ; but as his eye is the only guidehe has to follow in this estimate, he is always more or less exposedto error, or at least to doubt he is never sure that the cavities madeby his chisel are exact; a degree of uncertainly accompanies eachstroke ; nor can he be assured that it lias carried away neither toomuch nor too little of his marble. It is equally difficult to deter-mine, by such lines as have already been mentioned, the externaland internal contours of the figure, or to transfer them from themodel to the marble. By the internal contour is understood thatwhich is described by the parts which approach towards the centre,and which are not marked in a striking manner. In a complicatedand laborious work, which an artist cannot execute, without as-sistance, he is often obliged to make use of foreign hands, thathave not the talents or dexterity that are necessary to finish hisplan. A single stroke of Hie chisel that goes too deep is a defectnot to lie repaired; and such a stroke may easily happen, wherethe depths are so imperfectly determined. Defects of this kindare inevitable, if the sculptor, in chipping his marble, begins byforming the depths that are requisite in the figure he designs torepresent. Nothing is more liable to error than this manner ofproceeding. The cautious artist ought, oil the contrary, to formthese depths gradually, by little and little, with the utmost cir-cumspection and care; and the determining of them with precisionought to be considered as (lie last part of his work, and as the fi-nishing touches of his chisel. The various incQlivcniencies at-tending this method determined several eminent artists to look outfor one that would be liable to less uncertainty, and productive offewer errors. The French academy of painting at Rome hit upona method of copying the ancient statues, which some sculptorshave employed with success, even in the figures which they fi-nished after models in ciay or wax. This method is as follows:The statue that is to be copied is inclosed in a frame that fits itexactly. The upper part of this frame is divided into a certainnumber of equal parts, and to each of these parts a thread is fixedwith a piece of lead at the end of it. These threads, which hangfreely, shew what parts of the statue are most removed from thecentre with much more perspicuity and precision than the lineswhich are drawn upon its surface, and which pass equally oyerthe higher and hollow parts of the block : they also give the artista tolerable rule to measure the more striking variations of heightand depth, and thus render him more bold and determined in theexecution of his plan. But even this method is not without its de-fects: for as it is impossible, by the means of a straight line, todetermine with precision the procedure of a curve, the artist has,in this method, no certain rule to guide him in his contours ; andas often as the line which he is to describe deviates from the direc-tion of the plumb-line, Which is his main guide, lie must ne-cessarily find himself at a loss, and be obliged to have recourseto conjecture. To polish the statue, or make the parts of it smoothand sleek, they use pumice-stone and smelt; then tripoli; andwhen a still greater lustre is required, they use burnt straw.

SCUM properly denotes the impurities which aliquot, by.boil-ing, casts up to the surface. The term is also used for what ismore properly called the scoria of metals.

SC UPPERS/in a ship, are certain channels cut through thewater-ways and sides of a ship, at proper distances, and lined withplated lead, to carry the water off from the deck into the sea.

SCURVY, or SCORBUTUS , denotes a putrescent, or ratherdissolvent, state of the blood. This term is olten misapplied to avariety of eruptive complaints, which have no.,specific names.See Medicine. In the opinion of Dr. Beddoes, the mineralacids, especially the nitric and vitriolic, may be employed in theprevention or cure of this dreadful disease with as much successas the vegetable acids. But of. all the substances that can at oncebe cheaply procured and long preserved, he thinks the concreteacid of tartar by far the most promising- It is very grateful, and

comes near to the citric acid. In tropical countries the scurvy isseldom known.

SCURVYGRASS, in botany, See Cochlearia.

SCUTAGE, [scutagium, Lai.] was a tax or contribution raisedby those that held lands by knights’ service, towards furnish-iug the king’s army, at one, two, or three marks for every knight’sfee.

SCUTARI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia . Lon. 29.

4. E. Lat, 41. 0. N.

Scutari, a town of European Turkey , the capital of UpperAlbania; 20 miles N. of Antivari , 47 N. VV. of Alhanopolis, 5'*

5. E. of Ragusa, and 448 W. ot Constantinople . Lnn. lfl. 25.

E. Lat. 42. 30. N. _

SCUTFT,LAR IA, Scull-Cap; in botany, a genus of thegymnospermia order,- and didynamia class of plants ; natural ?r-

. der.